22 The Steppes
The Eurasian Steppe is a vast grassland region spanning from Eastern Europe to Mongolia, covering central Asia and China. For much of human history, this area was inhabited by nomadic pastoralists who traveled with their herds, often interacting with settled agricultural societies in Persia, Russia, and China. Geographers divide the Eurasian Steppe into two main zones: the western zone, which includes Ukraine, Russia, and Kazakhstan, and the eastern zone, which encompasses China and Mongolia. Both regions supported large herds of goats, cattle, and sheep, and the abundance of horses enabled powerful warriors to rule from horseback, granting their people the freedom to roam, migrate, and resist assimilation into unified states. The various tribes of the steppes are believed to be the ancestors of many modern-day ethnic groups, including Turkic, Iranian, Mongolic, Uralic, and multiethnic peoples.
The Nomadic Culture of the Steppes
The eastern Eurasian Steppe, also known as the Inner Asian Steppe, is a vast region of grasslands, mountains, and deserts that are unsuitable for agriculture and sparsely populated. Climate change has significantly shaped the history of this region. In periods of cooling climate, the grasslands would shrink, forcing nomads to search for new pastures, while droughts would drive them to raid nearby farms and cities for survival. Scholars believe that around 1500 BCE, a shift to a colder, drier climate led many people to abandon agriculture and adopt livestock herding.
As herders, the people of the Inner Asian Steppe consumed a diet rich in meat and dairy, producing goods from animal products that could be traded with agricultural villages. They spoke languages such as Turkic, Mongolic, and possibly Indo-European tongues. The nomads’ constant search for new pastures brought them into contact with agrarian civilizations like the Chinese, who often viewed them as a threat.
Despite cultural and physical barriers, the ethnic lines between Asia’s nomads and their neighbors were fluid. Raided goods like silk, lacquerware, and grain were distributed among loyal supporters, who conferred titles like chanyu or khan upon their leaders, signifying spiritual and military supremacy. The khans’ control over thousands of horses enhanced their power, allowing tribal confederations to dominate the Silk Roads, a network of trade routes connecting China, central Asia, India, and the Middle East. Luxury goods like silk and wine held immense material, social, and political value, serving as indicators of power among nomadic leaders.
Most Asian nomadic groups lived in small family units or clans, typically consisting of several families that shared an encampment and herded or hunted together. Clans were united under a chieftain chosen for their martial prowess. Unlike many ancient cultures, steppe societies were relatively egalitarian, with minimal role and status differences between men and women. Women from nomadic groups like the Xiongnu, Xianbei, and Turkic peoples engaged in horseback riding, archery, and combat skills, possibly inspiring legends like Mulan.
The nomadic lifestyle limited the accumulation and display of wealth, which may explain the relative rarity of written scripts. However, steppe cultures readily adopted technologies, goods, and ideas from neighboring civilizations. The domestication of horses gave nomadic groups a significant military advantage, and horseback riding and hunting provided essential martial arts training from a young age. Hunting was a central aspect of nomadic culture, featuring in rituals marking important life transitions.
The steppes formed a bridge between Europe and Asia, facilitating the spread of innovations like chariots and cavalry warfare. These developments led to the formation of powerful confederations that posed a significant military threat. Conquerors like Modun (c. 234-174 BCE), who rose to power in 209 BCE, marked a turning point in the relationship between the Inner Asian Steppe, China, and the Silk Roads, which connected the ancient world through trade and cultural exchange.
Link to Learning
This site provides an extensive history of the various nomadic tribes (https://openstax.org/l/77NomadicTribes) of the Eurasian Steppe. Consult the section about the Silk Roads to understand how these routes influenced the formation of tribal confederations and larger empires led by nomadic groups.
Tribes, Confederations, and Settled Neighbors
The earliest written records of non-Chinese peoples living along the steppes come from Chinese sources, which referred to them collectively as the Hu (or Donghu) and divided them into five large groups: the Xiongnu, Di, Qiang, Xianbei, and Jie. Later inhabitants of the steppes included the Khitan and smaller groups.
The Xiongnu, a powerful confederation, controlled lands near Mongolia from the third to the first century BCE. They became the dominant military force after forcing their rivals, the Yuezhi, to migrate west. The relationship between the Xiongnu and Chinese dynasties like the Han was complex, with periods of trade, tribute, and conflict. The Xiongnu sometimes submitted tribute to the Chinese, accepting inferior status in exchange for trade rights and rewards. At other times, they asserted military dominance by raiding China and constructing defenses. The Silk Roads played a critical role in the struggle between the Xiongnu and Chinese. Han military expeditions sought allies in central Asia, shifting the balance of power in favor of the Chinese. The Xiongnu were later weakened by civil war and natural disasters, leading some groups to become vassals of the Han.
Following the collapse of the Han dynasty, Xiongnu tribes founded dynastic states across northern China during the Six Dynasties period (220-589 CE). They introduced innovations like the stirrup and heavy cavalry, making them the supreme fighting force in Asia. These dynasties often invoked claims to legitimacy based on their ancestral ties to the Han dynasty. Meanwhile, the Xianbei, another ethnic nomadic group, emerged as a powerful force in East Asia. They grabbed territory inside China proper and founded the Northern Wei dynasty (386-534 CE), adopting the imperial title of emperor. Xianbei rulers tried to remake their society into a true Chinese dynasty, but their reforms proved dangerous, leading to civil war and the sack of the capital.
As the Xianbei and Xiongnu declined, the Khitan began a gradual ascent to power on the steppes and beyond from the fourth century onwards. Initially organized as small clans of hunters, fishers, herders, and warriors in a vast area spanning Mongolia to Siberia, the Khitan eventually founded the Liao dynasty (907-1125 CE). However, even more remarkable were the later empires that conquered the entire Inner Asian Steppe and all of China, established by the Mongols and Jurchen. These empires would go on to shape the course of Asian history, leaving a lasting legacy in politics, culture, and trade.