UNIT OBJECTIVES
Understand why the concept of personality has been difficult to define.
Define traits.
Recognize and describe the five factors of personality.
Understand the patterns of change in the five factors associated with maturation.
Differentiate between lower and higher-order personality traits.
Recognize narrow traits involved in adolescent development.
What is Personality?
Most people believe they can easily define and explain what their personality is. Everyone has a personality. Therefore, it should not be too hard to explain to others.
People sometimes are confused when they hear that psychologists have struggled for almost 150 years to scientifically categorize types of personalities. However, after some reflection, it becomes easier to understand why. Hundreds of words come to mind that illustrates people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. For example, some people are angry while others are calm. Some people are suspicious, while others are accepting. Some people are passionate, while others are more reserved. The list is almost endless.
Which are correct? They all are, for some people, some of the time. That is the problem. There are thousands of ways to describe people’s individual traits. Organizing them in a way that makes sense has been difficult.
One way psychologists define personality is the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that make a person unique. It is something inside the person as compared to the environment. Describing and categorizing personalities is essential if we are to understand them better. However, this task is much more complicated than it seems.
Many psychologists today believe that a substantial number of aspects of personality can be described by five independent characteristics or factors. Personality factors are internal characteristics that are relatively consistent that direct our thinking, feeling, and behavior. Each of these five factors is separate from others, meaning that a person’s position on one does not influence their score on any other (Klimstra et al., 2018).
These five factors seem to show up in many diverse cultures, suggesting that they are grounded in fundamental biological processes. However, they are also influenced by social experiences.
Over 80 years of research with factor analyses have identified these five factors. This can be remembered by the letters to the word OCEAN, an acronym for Openness, Consciousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism.
These traits are also normally distributed, meaning that if we graphed large numbers of people, we would find that their scores formed a familiar bell curve. Most of us would be somewhere near the middle. Some would be on the higher ends of one or more traits, some on the lower ends. But the majority of us would hover around the center (Costa & McCrae, 2011).
Here is a brief description of each of these factors:
Openness. People high on scales that measure Openness tend to be more curious and inventive. People who score low on tests for this trait tend to be more traditional. They are more satisfied with the present. Most of us score somewhat in the middle range. We can show flexibility in our behaviors, neither too open nor too traditional.
Conscientious. People who score high on measures of Conscientiousness tend to be efficient and organized. People low on this trait tend to be more extravagant, impulsive, and sometimes careless. Most people are in the middle, neither too organized nor too impulsive.
Extraversion. Extroverted people tend to be more outgoing and more energetic. People lower on measures of extroversion are often more solitary and reserved and might be characterized as being quieter. They are, quite naturally, more introverted. However, the majority of people are in the middle and can be flexible in social situations.
Agreeableness. Highly agreeable people tend to be more friendly and compassionate. People low on this trait tend to be more argumentative and critical. Neither extreme is “right” or “wrong.” Extremes on both ends can be either good or bad, depending on the person’s needs. As with the other traits, most people score in the middle range.
Neuroticism (also caused negative emotionality). People with lots of negative emotions tend to be more sensitive, anxious, and self-critical. They respond to stress very intensely. People low on this trait tend to be more confident and lack negative emotions. Often they lack empathy. Both extremes may present challenges. Most people are somewhat flexible in their response to negative emotions and are in the middle.
Five Factors and Adolescence
For most people, after adolescence, these personality factors are relatively stable throughout life. This is especially true for within-group comparisons. This means that if you are a conscientious 16 years old compared with your peers, you will likely be a conscientious 34-year-old when you are compared with your peers.
However, there are also longitudinal changes in these factors that are associated with aging and maturation (De Fruyt, De Clercq, & De Bolle, 2017). These are called between-group comparisons. During the adolescent years, Openness increases compared to adults. This is not surprising since adolescents are some of the most creative people in arts, music, and fashion. Adolescents’ contribution involves areas where creativity can be made without substantial training, and novel approaches are rewarded. Most spontaneous cultural changes have always come from young people. The internet has accelerated the process.
Openness actually decreases after adolescence. Most teenagers realize this. This may be one reason that so many older adults are fixated on the music that they listened to during their teenage years.
Conscientious also decreases in adolescences, only to increase later. Adolescents are, as a group, less accurate, less likely to be on time, less likely to do a good job, and less likely to carry through on tasks. Once a person hits their 20s, conscientiousness begins to increase. Conscientiousness seems to continue to grow as people age. Older people are much more conscientious than younger and even middle-aged adults. Researchers are not sure why.
However, this may be good news. Suppose you are highly conscientious in your teenage years. In that case, it is very likely, all else being equal, that you will be highly conscious as an adult. Suppose you are not as highly conscientious as a teen as you would like to be. In that case, you will likely be more conscientious as an adult but less conscientious than many of your peers. The good news is that you will improve a bit.
We add, as always, that if you are worried about your behavior or personality, please consult with a mental health provider.
Extraversion shows more variability but ultimately increases in later life. This goes somewhat against the stereotype that all adolescents are loud and socially oriented. On the other hand, people also want to be around other people more as they mature. This defies the stereotypes that some people have of cantankerous older people.
Not surprisingly, adolescents tend to be more disagreeable than at other times in their lives. Arguments with parents, teachers, and even with friends are common. This seems to be part of adolescents’ quest for independence. However, agreeableness tends to increase with age throughout life (Blaydon et al., 2013).
Regarding Neuroticism, almost everyone becomes more emotionally stable as they age. Many adolescents are often characterized by anxiety, self-doubt, and moodiness. Fortunately, people experience fewer negative emotions as time passes. Older people are not as prone to depression or anger. In other words, most 70-year-old are very emotionally stable, shattering the stereotype that we always become unhappier as we age.
Emotionally stable people at age 14 are likely to be very stable at age 70, all other equal factors. Suppose you had a rough time at 14. Cheer up! Things should get better. Mental health interventions can also be of help if necessary.
Psychologists are not sure what makes personality factors change. For example, some people believe that we change because of our social group. This certainly makes sense, according to what William James noted. However, research suggests that our eventual personalities are not as strongly influenced by our friends as we might think (Brogues et al., 2017. An exception is our best friends, who seem to have a more enduring influence on us than more casual acquaintances. Even very close friends, however, often have less impact on our personalities than we sometimes think.
Vignette 6.1 SCott, A Family Problem
Scott, age 18, recalled that he had never been able to get along with his father. He tried, but they disagreed on most things. The disagreements were so bothersome to his father that the father insisted that the family receive therapy. Scott, who was 14 at the time, found this unnecessary and intrusive. The therapy continued with various therapists until Scott was 16.
For reasons Scott did not understand, he found himself in the office of yet a new therapist. Of course, he would comply with his father’s wishes because that’s what teenagers should do. But he was resentful and found the experience boring.
After a few sessions, the therapist said she had a hypothesis about the family she wanted to test. So she had Scott take a test. She gave a similar test to the father and mother and Scott’s older brother, who sometimes lived at home.
The test was a personality measure based on the five factors of personality. By themselves, each person’s personality data did not say much. Everything appeared normal, Scott remembers the therapist telling him. But results were very helpful when looking at the way that Scott’s family would likely interact. This was especially true when Scott’s results were compared with his father’s personality scores.
Scott’s results showed foremost that he was not very open to new experiences. He was very traditional. Scott enjoyed rules and felt they should be carried out. He had a definite view of right and wrong. This contrasted with his father, who was very open and disliked most rules.
Neither style, the therapist, told Scott and his father is necessarily wrong. Instead, they are both opposite extremes that demand some compromise.
Both he and his father were highly conscientious. But in a way, this made them less tolerant of each other. Scott conscientiously tried to follow family rules and accept discipline. On the other hand, Scott’s father consciously believed that parents should avoid rules during their children’s teenage years and let them learn independently.
Scott, unlike his father, was much more outgoing. This was a characteristic he shared with his mother. This may have helped explain why his father saw him as excessively loud and preoccupied with friends.
Scott was also very disagreeable, especially compared to his father. Some of this was due to being an adolescent.
Finally, he was much more emotional, with moods that frequently changed. He tended to be somewhat excitable. His father tended to more average in this area.
Scott’s therapist summarized the family. She noted that Scott’s personality was traditional, conscientious, outgoing, somewhat disagreeable, and a bit moody. On the other hand, his father was much more open, quieter, more agreeable, and generally always emotionally stable. Once they understood their differences, they realized that their family had much more in common than they thought.
LOWER ORDER TRAITS
In addition to these Big Five personality factors, psychologists also examine other personality traits. Sometimes these traits are combinations of the Big Five. Sometimes they are traits that are more of clinical importance. Psychologists frequently call them “lower ordered.” Yet, they are still important, especially to people who are on the extremes of the distributions.
The discussion below highlights these traits in the order they are assessed as important for adolescents.
SELF ESTEEM
lf EsteemSelf-esteem is our opinion about ourselves. Adolescents are often concerned with self-esteem. Many popular press accounts discuss ways to increase this trait. In addition, thousands of videos on YouTube and Ticktock, among other places, claim to help viewers who have “self-esteem issues.”
Self-esteem has been an important topic in adolescent research for many years. Low self-esteem is related to anxiety, depression, substance abuse, failing to try hard, low achievement, and various life difficulties.
Moderate self-esteem is associated with a variety of positive life outcomes. These include school achievement, positive mood, and self-reported life satisfaction.
Self-esteem tends to be at its lowest point in our teen years. Very often, self-esteem is lower among women than among men. It is also lower among marginalized people and people from poor backgrounds and communities.
It might seem that extremely high self-esteem is a universally positive attribute. However, research suggests that this might not be true. People with exceptionally high self-esteem may be at increased risk for a variety of social and behavioral problems. They may not get along with others. They may be arrogant, selfish, entitled, and demanding. They may think they have talents that they do not possess. An example is an adolescent with excessive self-esteem. This person believed that his mediocre athletic performance was clearly enough to help him win a coveted award against much more talented peers.
Research suggests that self-esteem at both the high and low extreme is related to Neuroticism. People with high self-esteem generally have low levels of Neuroticism. People with low self-esteem, somewhat naturally, have high levels of Neuroticism. However, the direction of the cause is not clear. Does self-esteem cause Neuroticism? Does Neuroticism cause self-esteem? Or perhaps, do the two somehow influence each other? As is often the case, more research is needed.
Hostility and Moodiness
The popular press states that adolescents are often concerned about their moods. Adolescents themselves identify moodiness and hostility as problems that other young people have. Parents identify these traits as affecting their children. However, few people want to admit that they are personally hostile and moody. Regardless, it is common for young adults to look back on their adolescent years and identify these behaviors in their teenage selves.
Adolescents often seem more hostile than younger children. One reason is that they show changes in language skills that allow better self-expression. This means that adolescents will naturally become better at arguing and questioning what they are told by parents, teachers, and peers. Along the way, they develop sarcasm and irony, which makes them seem more hostile.
Some types of hostility can be thought of as a personality trait. Sometimes it is composed of a combination of very low Agreeableness and a high degree of Neuroticism. Other types of hostility are associated with depression or with other psychiatric disorders.
Adolescents may also seem to be moodier than younger or older people. Some of this may be related to expectations, especially in the family and other institutions. Some moodiness may be due to the teenager feeling frustrated at themselves and their powerlessness and lack of resources. They realize how many opportunities the world offers. Occasionally, moodiness is related to sadness, which is common in adolescents. If it becomes excessive, then a referral to a mental health professional may be helpful.
Moodiness also correlates with Neuroticism. Some researchers think that the two concepts are very similar. Some researchers believe that moodiness is directly caused by Neuroticism.
Parents frequently blame “hormones” for moodiness. Usually, their adolescent children blame their parents. Teachers often blame both the adolescents and the parents. Eventually, almost all adolescents become less moody around members of their immediate family. However, this may take several months or even years, as exasperated family members know too well. But things generally improve.
LOCUS of CONTROL
Locus of control is belief about whether the outcomes of our actions are controlled by what we do and can do. Adolescents often feel that they have little influence on their own lives. They may think that external events such as school, family, or the larger social world control them. This is called an external locus of control.
People who believe that they control their own fate are said to have an internal locus of control. Like many personality characteristics, the scores of most people on this trait are in the middle.
Adolescents with an internal local of control are more likely to take responsibility for their actions. They may be less influenced by the opinions of other people. They often feel confident in the face of challenges.
On the other hand, adolescents with an extremely external locus of control tend to blame outside forces for their circumstances, credit luck, or chance for any successes and often feel powerless in the face of difficult situations
Locus of control may be one of the more modifiable aspects of personality. Cognitive-behavioral therapy and other interventions can change the locus of control’s direction.
Regarding gender differences in the locus of control, the data is not clear despite much research. It appears that boys become more internal during adolescence while girls often become more external. However, this apparent trend may be directly due to cultural stereotypes and the lack of opportunities available to women. Adolescent girls will likely feel more in control when they are allowed more access to all activities.
PROCRASTINATION
Many adolescents worry about getting things done on time. Procrastination is putting off a task that has a high likelihood of needing to be completed. Adolescents are known for procrastinating or putting things off.
People procrastinate for different reasons. One reason is probably related to a lack of self-efficacy or feeling inadequate for the task at hand. Another is an inability to understand the consequences of actions. People who have experienced trauma also procrastinate, perhaps because they feel that they cannot succeed.
Procrastination seems to increase throughout college. As many as 74% of college students say they have a problem with procrastination.
Research suggests that procrastination is related to low levels of conscientiousness and, in some cases, to high levels of Neuroticism. However, not all procrastination is caused by these traits. Other causes are perfectionism, lack of resources, and ongoing stress.
Procrastination is also a symptom of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, discussed in Unit 9
Procrastination can be a lifelong pattern if it is not addressed in the teenage years. When severe enough, it may warrant counseling or psychotherapy.
PERFECTIONISM
Most adolescents know someone, perhaps themselves, who is a bit of a perfectionist. Psychologists define perfectionism as the tendency to extend extra effort beyond what is reasonably necessary.
Some researchers in the field have found three subtypes or facets of procrastination. These are related but are not the same. A person may have any combination of these.
The Self-Oriented perfectionist wants to do an excellent job for their own sake. This is because they enjoy doing something well.
The Other-Oriented perfectionist wants others to be perfect. They may have different standards for themselves.
Socially Prescribed perfectionists feel they have to do a good job or others will be let down and disappointed in them.
Some degree of perfectionism is generally helpful. However, excessive perfectionism, particularly Other-Oriented and Socially-Prescribe perfectionism, is associated with various life problems. Adolescents bothered by these issues may wish to consult a mental health professional for assistance.
SENSATION SEEKING
Most people agree that adolescents tend to seek out more experiences than children or adults. They are, psychologists would say, more sensation-seeking.
Sensation-seeking is defined as the tendency to seek out varied, complex, novel, and intense experiences. This has been recognized as a personality trait in psychological research since the 1960s.
The psychologist Marvin Zuckerman developed the original sensation-seeking scale as part of sensory deprivation experiments (Barenbaum & Winter, 2013). He outlined four subtypes:
1. Thrill and Adventure Seeking is the pursuit of physical activities that are exciting, unusual, and potentially dangerous.
2. Experience Seeking is the pursuit of new, unfamiliar, and complex environmental stimuli.
3. Disinhibition is a trait associated with the tendency to lose inhibitions by engaging in sex, alcohol, drugs, or excessive experiences.
4. Boredom Susceptibility is the tendency to be bored by familiar or repetitive situations, people, or routine work.
These subtypes are separate but often correlate. A score on one does not guarantee that a person will score high on another, but it increases the likelihood. Adolescents tend to show elevations in all of these areas. This does not apply to every adolescent, naturally, but it is true for groups.
One explanation for why adolescents tend to be risk-takers is that the brain systems for reward and impulse control develop at different rates (Littlefield, Stevens, Ellingson, King, & Jackson, 2016). Reward systems in subcortical areas tend to develop first. In contrast, cognitive-control systems in the prefrontal cortex do not finish development until the early 20s.
As a result, adolescents are biologically primed to experience reward but not equipped to fully evaluate the likelihood of risky behavior. This makes it much more likely that they will perform behaviors that will be dangerous or that they may later regret. This is especially true when they are in groups.
When combined with the lack of experience, this may accelerate impulsive behavior, discussed below.
Impulsiveness and impulsivity
Impulsiveness is acting without thinking. Impulsivity is the personality trait associated with that behavior.
Some people have suggested that the United States is an impulsive culture. Regardless, adolescents are the most impulsive of all. Adolescent rates of harmful behaviors are at very high levels and will continue to be so.
Impulsivity is related to the neurotransmitters serotonin and dopamine. Changes in these neurotransmitters occur as part of the developmental process associated with the teen years. Thus, there are developmental and social reasons for this increased impulsiveness.
Impulsivity is also more likely to occur when society is unstable and when economic conditions are in transition. Impulsive behavior may occur more in urban and suburban areas than in rural areas.
Impulsive behavior is associated with venturesomeness. Impulsiveness encourages people to try new things. The youth who previously tried only three flavors of ice cream suddenly finds a world of unique selections. The young person who once avoided the pizza topics except for his older brothers and sisters liked now is free to try something bolder. But with this new freedom comes risks.
Psychologists have conducted many studies attempting to understand adolescent risks (Reniers, Murphy, Lin, Bartolomé, & Wood, 2016). For many years, it was thought that adolescents underestimated risks, which is why they engaged in risky behavior. It is now thought that most adolescents understand risks but fail to respond to them appropriately. Most neuroscientists believe that as their brains mature, adolescents will show a reduction in risky behavior.
INDEPENDENCE
Many adolescent behaviors may combine to give rise to the trait of independence. For example, adolescents may develop more radical ideas than their parents or dress in ways that show their independence from their parents. Some of these are in response to parents or other authority figures. These ways also solidify their identity with their peer groups. Whether these personality attributes will continue throughout life cannot be predicted during the teenage years. However, most adolescents tend to become more like their parents, as annoying as that idea seems, as they age.
Narcissism and Narcissistic ideation
Many adolescents see themselves as unique, different from what the world has previously known. This is usual and is a part of growing up. But this belief can become abnormal and interfere with development. In addition, this belief can foster what is called “narcissistic self-perception (Hill and Edmonds, 2017.). This can occur when the adolescent discounts the advice and help of everyone because they are so special.
Some narcissistic tendencies during adolescents are probably appropriate. Adaptive aspects of narcissistic traits may relate to self-sufficiency and independence. Moderately self-focused teenagers, as odd as it sounds, may be more likely to attempt new experiences.
However, maladaptive elements of narcissism can play havoc with development. For example, excessive self-focus may quickly generate feelings of entitlement and the tendency to exploit others (Barry, Frick, & Killian, 2003).
Narcissism is particularly problematic in adolescents when it encourages the belief that others cannot possibly understand them. Adolescents who believe that no one understands them are at high risk for many severe behavioral and emotional problems (Hill & Lapsley, 2011).
Some researchers suggest that younger people’s narcissism today is much more common than in previous generations (Twenge, 2013). These findings are inconsistent, however, and are widely debated by psychologists. Thus, more research is undoubtedly needed.
Rejection Sensitivity
Many adolescents note that their feelings are more easily hurt than when they were younger. Rejection sensitivity is a personality trait that seems to increase in early adolescence (Fontana et al., 2018). Its relationship to other characteristics is not fully understood, although it is related to Neuroticism. Both negative experiences and inborn characteristics are probably required for the development of extremes of rejection sensitivity. Some people who score at elevated levels on this trait will develop an avoidance of social situations. Others will outgrow the quality and make satisfactory adjustments. As always, if a person has a concern, we urge them to discuss their problems with their health care provider or mental health professional.
There is evidence that some rejection sensitivity types may be related to Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, discussed later.
Can Personality Change?
Adolescents and others are often concerned about whether personality can change. In the adolescent years, personality may be more flexible than later in life. The teenage years are an excellent opportunity to change behaviors and personalities in a positive direction. Psychotherapy or counseling can help people to obtain lasting personality changes. It often begins by assisting people in identifying goals. It can also help people find problems in their environment that encourage behaviors that they do not like. It can also teach them skills to continue the process of self-change and examination.
There are many different types of psychotherapies. For example, insight-oriented therapies often have their roots in the theories of Freud or his followers. While not appropriate for all situations, in some, insight therapies are very successful.
Cognitive or cognitive-behavioral therapies are designed to change a person’s thinking patterns, transforming a person’s way of relating to the world. Evidence indicates that they are successful in many situations. Behavioral therapies change a person’s activities, including their physical responses to stress. Family therapies work with the family as a system. They are often especially useful for problems that many adolescents have, such as addictions.
Humanistic therapies are based on the idea that we need to make decisions about our lives and take responsibility for them. Problem-solving therapies tend to teach more hands-on skills. There are many more types of therapies, each appropriate for certain specific situations. Regardless of the kind of therapy, research shows that most work for many problems.
Medications may help with psychological or behavioral problems in many situations. For example, antidepressant medications and mood-stabilizing medications may have a positive impact on personality if used appropriately.
Adolescents, however, are susceptible to the stigma of mental health services. They are also sensitive to the stigma of any type of health service. The desire to conform and appear similar and not stand out is a driving force for many younger people. Unfortunately, our society often reinforces this message. The popularity of social media has still not done enough to reduce the stigma.
Although many mental health problems may spontaneously improve, some, unfortunately, do not. Some become worse in time. Some wax and wane. A wise person of any age will seek assistance if they have concerns. This simply makes sense. This can help to keep problems from becoming more severe. Psychological and behavioral issues, like physical problems, are generally much easier to treat if treated earlier.
CRITICAL THINKING
What effects do you think that racism has on personality? Why?
Do you think that personality is influenced more by our parents or our peers? Why? For the short run? How about for the long run?
Why is it wrong to label some traits as “masculine” and others “feminine”? What would you tell someone who wanted to change their personality?
Do you think that the “average” young person’s personality has changed much since the 1950s? Why or why not?
How do you think your personality will change as you grow older?