42
The Perfect System
You have learned four tenses of Greek verbs: the present, future, imperfect, and aorist. These lessons present the final tenses, those of the PERFECT SYSTEM.
The tenses of the PERFECT SYSTEM refer to completed action. These tenses differ from the other tenses in ASPECT. If the aspect of a verb is COMPLETED (often with a sense of just now completed), then in Greek it is expressed by a verb of the PERFECT SYSTEM.
To review, ASPECT is a grammatical term that expresses the relationship between the ACTION of a verb and the PASSAGE OF TIME. In other words, aspect describes whether the action, regardless of its tense, was:
- SIMPLE. This is a simple action, or an action not marked as continuing, simple, or completed.
- Greek marks this aspect by using the VERB STEM (e.g., the aorist tense)
- ONGOING. This is an action that took place over an extent of time, was habitual, or was more than a single action in some way.
- Greek expresses this aspect by using the PRESENT STEM (e.g., the present and imperfect tense)
- COMPLETED. This is a completed action that has lasting results. This aspect often reflects a state resulting from past action. For example, if someone has just died, then he is dead. In fact, it is the resulting state that is often the emphasis of this aspect, not the action of the verb itself. I have made you a drink, i.e., your drink is ready.
- Greek marks this aspect by using the PERFECT STEM (e.g. the perfect and pluperfect tenses)
To see how Greek past tenses differ in aspect, note the following:
- Aorist: I walked
- snapshot of a past action (simple aspect)
- the speaker travelled from point A to B
- Imperfect: I was walking/ used to walk
- video of past action (ongoing aspect)
- the speaker was traveling from point A to B
- Perfect: I have just walked
- action is completely done, with results still felt in the present (completed aspect)
- the speaker has just now arrived at point B (a resulting state)
Formation: Perfect Active
Greek tenses of the PERFECT SYSTEM add the following distinctive markers to the verb stem:
- The initial sound of the VERB STEM is doubled. This addition, called REDUPLICATION, creates a PERFECT SYSTEM verb stem (S 439).
- To mark the ACTIVE voice, verbs add the suffix –κ– to the perfect system stem. When adding –κ– to the verb stem is too difficult to pronounce, the –κ– merges or drops out.
Reduplication
You may recall that in the present tense, some verbs reduplicated their initial consonant sound, adding an –ι– for ease of pronunciation. For example:
- δω– → διδω– (present stem)
The PERFECT SYSTEM also reduplicates, adding an –ε– for ease of pronunciation (S 340). For example:
- λυ → λελυ– (perfect stem)
- δεικ → δεδεικ– (perfect stem)
- γραφ → γεγραφ– (perfect stem)
- δω → δεδω– (perfect stem)
However, if the Greek verb stem starts with a vowel, an AUGMENT is added. Just as we saw with IMPERFECT verbs, the augment LENGTHENS a short vowel (S 442).
- ἀρχ → ἠρχ– (perfect stem)
- ἐθελη → ἠθελη– (perfect stem)
Recall that as a general rule, Greek does not allow ASPIRATED CONSONANTS to begin consecutive syllables (S 441).
- θη→ τεθη– (perfect stem)
Recall also that Greeks regularly drop an initial σ– if it comes right before a vowel (S 119). When this happens, the vowel marks this loss by receiving a rough breathing mark.
- στη → σεστη → ἑστη– (perfect stem)
–κ– Marker
In the ACTIVE voice, the marker –κ– is added to the PERFECT SYSTEM STEM. If the stem ends in a DENTAL (τ, δ, θ), the dental drops (S 556-560).
- λυ → λελυ– (perfect stem)
- + –κ– → λελυκ– (perfect active stem)
- στη → ἑστη– (perfect stem)
- + –κ– → ἑστηκ– (perfect active stem)
- δω → δεδω– (perfect stem)
- + –κ– → δεδωκ– (perfect active stem)
- θη→ τεθη– (perfect stem)
- + –κ– → τεθηκ– (perfect active stem)
- ποιε → πεποιη– (perfect stem)
- + –κ– → πεποιηκ– (perfect active stem)
- δηλο → δεδηλω– (perfect stem)
- + –κ– → δεδηλωκ– (perfect active stem)
- πειθ → πεπειθ– (perfect stem)
- + –κ– → πεπεικ– (perfect active stem)
- ἀγγελ → ἠγγελ– (perfect stem)
- + –κ– → ἠγγελκ– (perfect active stem)
If the –κ– marker is added to a PERFECT TENSE STEM that ends in a LABIAL (π, β, φ), PALATAL (κ, γ, χ), or most stems ending in a LIQUID (λ, ρ), the –κ– merges or, more often, simply drops out to ease pronunciation (S 561-573).
- δεικ → δεδεικ– (perfect stem)
- + –κ– → δεδεικκ → δεδειχ– (perfect active stem)
- γραφ → γεγραφ– (perfect stem)
- + –κ– → γεγραφ– (perfect active stem)
- ἀρχ → ἠρχ– (perfect stem)
- + –κ– → ἠρχ– (perfect active stem)
Personal Endings: Active
The Perfect Tense is a PRIMARY TENSE, and uses a variation of the ATHEMATIC primary endings with which you are already familiar.
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–α = I (1st person singular) |
–αμεν = we (1st person plural) |
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–ας = you (2nd person singular) |
–ατε = y’all (2nd person plural) |
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–ε(ν) = (s)he, it (3rd person sg) |
–ασι(ν) = they (3rd person pl) |
The Perfect, Indicative, Active of λύω (S 385; GPH p. 90)
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λέλυκα |
λελύκαμεν |
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λέλυκας |
λελύκατε |
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λέλυκε |
λελύκασι |
The Perfect, Indicative, Active of δείκνυμι
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δέδειχα |
δεδείχαμεν |
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δέδειχας |
δεδείχατε |
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δέδειχε |
δεδείχασι |
Mixed Perfects
The following perfects have some irregularities that are worth noting:
- δέδοικα fear (no corresponding present tense form occurs in classical Greek): perfect stems δεδοικ-/δε(ι)δι-
- (ἀπο)θνῄσκω die: perfect stems τεθνηκ-/τεθνα- be dead
- ἵσταμαι come to stand: perfect stems ἑστηκ-/ἑστα- stand
- βαίνω go, walk: perfect stems βεβηκ-/βεβα- stand (firm)
These verbs form their perfect with the marker –κ– built on the long variant of the stem. Other forms also occur, however, that are built on the short variant of the stem. Usually the 3rd person plural forms are built on the short form of the stem:
- δέδοικα has plural forms based on the short stem: δέδιμεν, δέδιτε, δεδίασι(ν)
- τέθνηκα (from θνῄσκω) has a 3rd plural form based on the short stem: τεθνᾶσι(ν)
- ἕστηκα (from ἵσταμαι) has 2nd and 3rd plural forms based on the short stem: ἕστατε, ἑστᾶσι(ν)
- βέβηκα (from βαίνω) has 3rd plural forms based on the short stem: βεβᾶσι(ν)
Formation: Perfect Middle/Passive
The marker –κ– indicates a PERFECT ACTIVE. To form the PERFECT MIDDLE/PASSIVE, simply add the PRIMARY MIDDLE/PASSIVE ENDINGS directly to the perfect tense stem. Later we discuss what happens when these middle endings are added to consonant stem verbs. For now, note how regular the PERFECT MIDDLE/PASSIVE formation is with perfect tense stems that end in a vowel.
The Perfect, Indicative, Middle of λύω (GPH p. 90)
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λέλυμαι |
λελύμεθα |
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λέλυσαι |
λέλυσθε |
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λέλυται |
λέλυνται |
Infinitives
To form the INFINITIVE mood, the PERFECT TENSE uses the same endings as –μι verbs, though in the active an –ε– is added before the infinitive ending. The persistent accent is on the PENULT.
- –έναι = active
- λελυκέναι
- –σθαι = middle/passive
- λελύσθαι
Principal Parts
Advanced vocabulary lists and lexica give six PRINCIPAL PARTS for Greek verbs. We have already encountered the FIRST THREE principal parts: PRESENT, FUTURE, and AORIST. Mastering these first three principal parts is sufficient for most reading purposes at the beginning and intermediate levels.
The FOURTH PRINCIPAL PART is the PERFECT ACTIVE.
The FIFTH PRINCIPAL PART is the PERFECT MIDDLE.
The SIXTH PRINCIPAL PART we have already met: the AORIST PASSIVE.
These principal parts are given because these tense and voice stems can exhibit minor, but complex, variations (S 369-370; GPH pp. 231-240). Be aware, too, that many verbs never occur (or are extremely rare) in perfect tenses, and so do not even have a fourth or fifth principal part. If you understand the principles of building perfect stems, however, you should be able to recognize them when they appear.
– τὸ τέλος –
Key Terms and Concepts
- THE PERFECT SYSTEM
- COMPLETED ASPECT
- REDUPLICATION
- PERFECT TENSE STEM
- –κ– MARKER
- FOURTH PRINCIPAL PART
- FIFTH PRINCIPAL PART
Vocabulary
Perfect forms that simply need to be memorized because they are particularly difficult or impossible to guess based on formation rules are marked in red.
- ἀδικέω, ἀδικήσω, ἠδίκησα, ἠδίκηκα, ἠδίκημαι, ἠδικήθην commit injustice
- ἀγγέλλω, ἀγγελῶ, ἤγγειλα, ἤγγελκα, ἤγγελμαι, ἠγγέλθην report, tell
- αἱρέω, αἱρήσω, εἷλον (stem ἑλ-), ᾕρηκα, ᾕρημαι, ᾑρέθην take, grasp; (mid.) choose
- αἰσθάνομαι, αἰσθήσομαι, ᾐσθόμην, ––, ᾔσθημαι, –– perceive
- ἀποθνῄσκω, ἀποθανοῦμαι, ἀπέθανον, τέθνηκα, ––, –– die
- ἀποκρίνομαι, ἀποκρινοῦμαι, ἀπεκρινάμην, ––, ἀποκέκριμαι, –– answer
- βαίνω, βήσομαι, ἔβην, βέβηκα, βέβαμαι, ἐβάθην walk, come, go
- βάλλω, βαλῶ, ἔβαλον, βέβληκα, βέβλημαι, ἐβλήθην throw, hit
- βουλεύω, βουλεύσω, ἐβούλευσα, βεβούληκα, βεβούλημαι, ἐβουλεύθην deliberate, resolve
- γίγνομαι, γενήσομαι, ἐγενόμην, γέγονα, γεγένημαι, ἐγενήθην happen, become, be born
- ––, ––, ἔδεισα, δέδοικα, ––, –– fear
- δηλόω, δηλώσω, ἐδήλωσα, δεδήλωκα, δεδήλωμαι, ἐδηλώθην show
- δίδωμι, δώσω, ἔδωκα, δέδωκα, δέδομαι, ἐδόθην give
- δύναμαι, δυνήσομαι, ––, ––, δέδυνημαι, ἐδυνήθην be able, can
- ἐθέλω, ἐθελήσω, ἠθέλησα, ἠθέληκα want
- ἔρχομαι, ἐλεύσομαι, ἦλθον, ἐλήλυθα (stem ἐλθ-) come, go
- εὑρίσκω, εὑρήσω, εὗρον/ηὗρον, ηὕρηκα, ηὕρημαι, ηὑρέθην find
- ἔχω, ἕξω/σχήσω, ἔσχον (imperfect: εἶχον) (stem σχ-), ἔσχηκα, ἐσχημαι, ἐσχέθην have, hold, be
- ἡγέομαι, ἡγήσομαι, ἡγησάμην, ––, ἥγημαι, ἡγήθην lead (+ dat.), consider
- ἵημι, ἥσω, ἧκα, εἷκα, εἷμαι, εἵθην throw
- ἵστημι, στήσω, ἕστησα/ἕστην, ἕστηκα, ἕσταμαι, ἐστάθην stand
- κτάομαι, κτήσομαι, ἐκτησάμην, ––, κέκτημαι, ἐκτήθην get, acquire
- λέγω, ἐρῶ, εἶπον (stem ἐπ-), εἴρηκα, εἴρημαι, ἐρρήθην say, speak, report
- λύω, λύσω, ἔλυσα, λέλυκα, λέλυμαι, ἐλύθην loosen, destroy
- μάχομαι, μαχοῦμαι, ἐμαχεσάμην, ––, μεμάχημαι, –– fight
- μένω, μενῶ, ἔμεινα, μεμένηκα remain, stay
- ὁμολογέω, ὁμολογήσω, ὡμολόγησα, ὡμολόγηκα, ὡμολόγημαι, ὡμολογήθην agree
- πάσχω, πείσομαι, ἔπαθον, πέπονθα suffer, experience
- ποιέω, ποιήσω, ἐποίησα, πεποίηκα, πεποίημαι, ἐποιήθην do, make
- τίθημι, θήσω, ἔθηκα, τέθηκα, τέθειμαι, ἐτέθην put, make
- φέρω, οἴσω, ἤνεγκα/ἤνεγκον (stem ἐνεγκ-), ἐνήνοχα, ἐνήνεγμαι, ἠνέχθην carry, bring
- φεύγω, φεύξομαι, ἔφυγον, πέφευγα flee, run away
- χράομαι, χρήσομαι, ἐχρησάμην, ––, κέχρημαι, ἐχρήσθην use (+ dat.)
Exercises
1. Greek verbs can express one of three ASPECTS. What are they? For each, give the Greek verb past tense.
1.
2.
3.
2. All verbs of the PERFECT SYSTEM _______________ the initial sound of the verb stem, an addition that is called __________________ .
3. The tense marker of the PERFECT ACTIVE is __________________ .
4. Do the personal endings for the PERFECT ACTIVE resemble the primary endings of thematic or athematic verbs?
5. Conjugate the PERFECT ACTIVE of the following verbs.
- φύω, φύσω, ἔφυσα, πέφυκα, –, ἐφύην
- θύω, θύσω, ἔθυσα, τέθυκα, τέθυμαι, ἐτύθην
- γράφω, γράψω, ἔγραψα, γέγραφα, γέγραμμαι, ἐγράφην
- ἄρχω, ἄρξω, ἦρξα, ἦρχα, ἦργμαι, ἤρχθην
6. Conjugate the PERFECT MIDDLE of the following verbs.
- παύω, παύσω, ἔπαυσα, πέπαυκα, πέπαυμαι, ἐπαύθην
- ποιέω, ποιήσω, ἐποίησα, πεποίηκα, πεποίημαι, ἐποιήθην