Chapter 10: Rhetorical Modes
Creative and Critical Thinking
In this chapter, we will begin our discussion of the foundational elements of the critical and creative thinking processes and how they work together to help us shape our opinions and views of the world.
Responding to the challenges of the twenty-first century – with its complex environmental, social, and economic pressures – requires people to be creative, innovative, enterprising, and adaptable, with the motivation, confidence, and skills to use critical and creative thinking purposefully.
This capability combines two types of thinking: critical thinking and creative thinking. Though the two are not interchangeable, they are strongly linked, bringing complementary dimensions to thinking and learning.
Critical thinking is at the core of most intellectual activity that involves students learning to recognize or develop an argument, use evidence in support of that argument, draw reasoned conclusions, and use information to solve problems. Examples of critical thinking skills are interpreting, analyzing, evaluating, explaining, sequencing, reasoning, comparing, questioning, inferring, hypothesizing, appraising, testing, and generalizing.
Exercise 10.1
View the videos below. Then, write a brief definition of critical thinking in your own words. Why do you think critical thinking is important?
What is Critical Thinking? by Macat
Creative thinking involves students learning to generate and apply new ideas in specific contexts, seeing existing situations in a new way, identifying alternative explanations, and seeing or making new links that generate a new outcome. This includes combining parts to form something original, sifting and refining ideas to discover possibilities, constructing theories and objects, and acting on intuition. The products of creative endeavors can involve complex representations and images, investigations and performances, digital and computer-generated output, or occur as virtual reality.
Concept formation is the mental activity that helps us compare, contrast, and classify ideas, objects, and events. Concept learning can be concrete or abstract and is closely allied with metacognition. Dispositions such as inquisitiveness, reasonableness, intellectual flexibility, open- and fair-mindedness, a readiness to try new ways of doing things and consider alternatives, and persistence promote and are enhanced by critical and creative thinking.
Critical thinking is a skill you will use and build on for your educational journey. How that occurs often depends on the instructor, assignment, class, and student. For this class, however, the primary way that this skill will be developed is through writing assignments that involve research, analysis, and argumentation. While this class is primarily composed of essays, an essay can take many forms. Within each of these forms, there are additional specifications that help narrow the type of writing being used even further. While we will not be able to extensively cover each and every type of writing this semester (or even throughout your entire time in College Composition 1 and 2), the following sections explain several of the rhetorical modes that you will encounter throughout your time in college.
Rhetorical modes encompass the ways in which we can effectively communicate through language. This chapter covers several common rhetorical modes. As you read about these modes, keep in mind that the rhetorical mode a writer chooses depends on his or her purpose for writing. Sometimes writers incorporate a variety of modes in any one essay. In covering these modes, this chapter also emphasizes the rhetorical modes as a set of tools that will allow you greater flexibility and effectiveness in communicating with your audience and expressing your ideas.
Exercise 10.2
Read “In the Age of AI, Critical Thinking is Needed More Than Ever” and write a response. Do you agree or disagree with the author’s claims? How does critical thinking relate to AI? Why might AI require us to pay more attention to building our critical thinking skills?
Illustration
The Purpose of Illustration in Writing
To illustrate means to show or demonstrate something clearly. An effective illustration essay clearly demonstrates and supports a point through evidence.
The controlling idea of an essay is called a thesis. A writer can use different types of evidence to support his or her thesis. Using scientific studies, experts in a particular field, statistics, historical events, current events, analogies, and personal anecdotes are all ways in which a writer can illustrate a thesis. Ultimately, you want the evidence to help the reader “see” your point, as one would see a good illustration in a magazine or on a website. The stronger your evidence is, the more clearly the reader will consider your point.
While anecdotes are technically considered to be a type of evidence, they are only highly effective when the person providing the anecdote has pre-established credibility (Example: Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. had pre-established credibility before his “I have a Dream” speech which allowed him to effectively utilize personal anecdotes throughout the speech) or the person’s credibility has been explained/provided before the anecdote is discussed (Example: Dr. Jefferson Inkley, lead cardiologist at the local hospital, claims that..”). That means, that while your topic may be important to you due to a personal experience, it is usually better to rely on the other types of evidence as you, most likely, do not have any pre-established credibility.
Using evidence effectively can be challenging, though. The evidence you choose will usually depend on your subject and who your reader is (your audience). When writing an illustration essay, keep in mind the following:
- Use evidence that is appropriate to your topic as well as appropriate for your audience.
- Assess how much evidence you need to adequately explain your point depending on the complexity of the subject and the knowledge of your audience regarding that subject.
For example, if you were writing about a new communication software and your audience was a group of English-major undergrads, you might want to use an analogy that utilizes more common items/ideas to illustrate how the software worked. You might also choose to add more pieces of evidence to make sure the audience understands your point. However, if you were writing about the same subject and your audience members were information technology (IT) specialists, you would likely use field-specific terminology and far fewer pieces of general evidence as they would be familiar with the subject.
Keeping in mind your subject in relation to your audience will increase your chances of effectively illustrating your point.
Exercise 10.3
On a separate piece of paper, form a thesis based on each of the following topics. Then list the types of evidence that would best explain your point for each of the audiences listed next to each topic.
| Topic | Audience |
| 1. Combat and mental health | family members of veterans, doctors |
| 2. Video games and teen violence | parents, children |
| 3. Architecture and earthquakes | engineers, local townspeople |
The Structure of an Illustration Essay
The controlling idea, or thesis, belongs at the beginning of the essay. Oftentimes it is the last sentence of an introductory paragraph as it serves as the linking idea to the supporting evidence that will be presented in the essay’s body paragraphs. This evidence is presented to support the thesis. You can start supporting your main point with your strongest evidence first, or you can start with evidence of lesser importance and have the essay build to increasingly stronger evidence.
You might choose a series of examples to support your thesis or you might use an extended example. An extended example focuses on one specific incident as an example in support of your point.
Consider the following thesis: The Internet creates too many distractions for students.
Using an extended example might involve explaining one student’s experience as an illustration of your thesis as Matt Richtel does in “Growing Up Digital, Wired for Distraction.”
By all rights, Vishal [Singh], a bright 17-year-old, should already have finished the book, Kurt Vonnegut’s “Cat’s Cradle,” his summer reading assignment. But he has managed 43 pages in two months. He typically favors Facebook, YouTube and making digital videos. That is the case this August afternoon. Bypassing Vonnegut, he clicks over to YouTube, meaning that tomorrow he will enter his senior year of high school hoping to see an improvement in his grades, but without having completed his only summer homework.
A series of examples could also be used. Instead of just focusing on one student, you could discuss different examples to support your point. In “The Web Shatters Focus, Rewires Brain,” Nicholas Carr also addresses the distractions of technology, but he uses a series of examples to illustrate his point.
The Internet is an interruption system. It seizes our attention only to scramble it. There’s the problem of hypertext and the many different kinds of media coming at us simultaneously. There’s also the fact that numerous studies—including one that tracked eye movement, one that surveyed people, and even one that examined the habits displayed by users of two academic databases—show that we start to read faster and less thoroughly as soon as we go online. Plus, the Internet has a hundred ways of distracting us from our onscreen reading. Most email applications check automatically for new messages every five or 10 minutes, and people routinely click the Check for New Mail button even more frequently. Office workers often glance at their inbox 30 to 40 times an hour. Since each glance breaks our concentration and burdens our working memory, the cognitive penalty can be severe.
Because an illustration essay uses so many examples, it is also helpful to have a list of words and phrases to present each piece of evidence. Table 10.1 “Transition Words and Phrases of Illustration” provides several phrases for illustration.
Table 10.1 Transition Words and Phrases for Illustration
|
case in point |
for example |
|
for instance |
in particular |
|
in this case |
one example/another example |
|
specifically |
to illustrate |
Exercises 10.4
On a separate sheet of paper, form a thesis based on one of the following topics. Then support that thesis with three pieces of evidence. Make sure to use a different phrase of illustration to introduce each piece of evidence you choose.
- Cooking
- Baseball
- Work hours
- Exercise
- Traffic
Please share with a classmate and compare your answers. Indicate which thesis statement you perceive as the most effective and why.
Writing an Illustration Essay
First, decide on a topic that you feel interested in writing about. Then create an interesting introduction to engage the reader. The main point, or thesis, should be stated at the end of the introduction.
Gather evidence that is appropriate to both your subject and your audience. You can order the evidence in terms of importance, either from least important to most important or from most important to least important. Be sure to fully explain all of your examples using strong, clear supporting details.
Exercise 10.5
Choose a motto or other inspirational statement that appeals to you; this can be one chosen from the list below of mottos from national organizations or one you are familiar with or even a personal motto. Using the above guidelines for the rhetorical mode of illustration, write a paragraph that illustrates your chosen motto or statement. Remember to include specific examples and description to illustrate your interpretation of this statement.
4-H: “To make the best better”
Boy and Girl Scouts: “Be Prepared”
Tabor Academy: “Vincit Semper Veritas” (Truth always conquers)
Liverpool Football Club: “You’ll Never Walk Alone”
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer: “Ars Gratia Artis” (Art for art’s sake)
Nike: “Just do it”
Tag Heuer: “Success. It’s a Mind Game”
Exercise 10.6
Read “Is Polygamy Really So Awful?”. For each point she makes about the effects of polygamy, identify the examples she uses to support her point. Are they vivid examples that can make an essay interesting, exciting, and effective or dull, generalized examples? Are they concrete, appropriate, and clear? Choose one specific paragraph and discuss how the examples are effective.
Student Example Essay: Illustration Essay Example_Kaitlin Thompson
Key Takeaways
- An illustration essay clearly explains a main point using evidence.
- When choosing evidence, always gauge whether the evidence is appropriate for the subject as well as the audience.
- Organize the evidence in terms of importance, either from least important to most important or from most important to least important.
- Use time transitions to order evidence.
- Use phrases of illustration to call out examples.
Narration
The Purpose of Narrative Writing
Narration means the art of storytelling, and the purpose of narrative writing is to tell stories. Any time you tell a story to a friend or family member about an event or incident in your day, you engage in a form of narration. In addition, a narrative can be factual or fictional. A factual story is one that is based on, and tries to be faithful to, actual events as they unfolded in real life. A fictional story is an imagined story; the writer of a fictional story can create characters and events as he or she sees fit.
The big distinction between factual and fictional narratives is based on a writer’s purpose. The writers of factual stories try to recount events as they actually happened, but writers of fictional stories can depart from real people and events because the writers’ intents are not to retell a real-life event. Biographies and memoirs are examples of factual stories; whereas novels and short stories are examples of fictional stories.
Because the line between fact and fiction can often blur, it is helpful to understand what your purpose is from the beginning. Is it important that you recount history, either your own or someone else’s? Or does your interest lie in reshaping the world in your own image—either how you would like to see it or how you imagine it could be? Your answers will go a long way in shaping the stories you tell.
Ultimately, whether the story is fact or fiction, narrative writing tries to relay a series of events in an emotionally engaging way. You want your audience to be moved by your story, which could mean through laughter, sympathy, fear, anger, and so on. The more clearly you tell your story, the more emotionally engaged your audience is likely to be.
Exercise 10.7
On a separate sheet of paper, start brainstorming ideas for a narrative. First, decide whether you want to write a factual or fictional story. Then, freewrite for five minutes. Be sure to use all five minutes, and keep writing the entire time. Do not stop and think about what to write.
The following are some topics to consider as you get going:
Childhood
School
Adventure
Work
Love
Family
Friends
Vacation
Nature
Space
The Structure of a Narrative Essay
Major narrative events are most often conveyed in chronological order, the order in which events unfold from first to last. Stories typically have a beginning, a middle, and an end, and these events are typically organized by time. Certain transitional words and phrases aid in keeping the reader oriented in the sequencing of a story. Some of these phrases are listed in Table 10.2 “Transition Words and Phrases for Expressing Time”.
Table 10.2 Transition Words and Phrases for Expressing Time
|
after/afterward |
as soon as |
at last |
before |
|
currently |
during |
eventually |
meanwhile |
|
next |
now |
since |
soon |
|
finally |
later |
still |
then |
|
until |
when/whenever |
while |
first, second, third |
The following are the other basic components of a narrative:
- Plot: The events as they unfold in sequence. The manner of dealing with the conflict.
- Characters: The people who inhabit the story and move it forward. Typically, there are minor characters and main characters. The minor characters generally play supporting roles to the main character, or the protagonist.
- Conflict: The primary problem or obstacle that unfolds in the plot that the protagonist must solve or overcome by the end of the narrative. The way in which the protagonist resolves the conflict of the plot results in the theme of the narrative.
- Background: What has caused the conflict to take place?
- Theme: The ultimate message the narrative is trying to express; it can be either explicit or implicit.
Writing beyond College
When interviewing candidates for jobs, employers often ask about conflicts or problems a potential employee has had to overcome. They are asking for a compelling personal narrative. To prepare for this question in a job interview, write out a scenario using the narrative mode structure. This will allow you to troubleshoot rough spots, as well as better understand your own personal history. Both processes will make your story and your self-presentation better.
Exercise 10.8
Take your freewriting exercise from the last section and start crafting it chronologically into a rough plot summary. Be sure to use the time transition words and phrases listed in Table 10.2 “Transition Words and Phrases for Expressing Time” to sequence the events.
Writing a Narrative Essay
When writing a narrative essay, start by asking yourself if you want to write a factual or fictional story. Then free-write about topics that are of general interest to you.
Once you have a general idea of what you will be writing about, you should sketch out the major events of the story that will compose your plot. Typically, these events will be revealed chronologically and climax at a central conflict that must be resolved by the end of the story. The use of strong details is crucial as you describe the events and characters in your narrative. You want the reader to emotionally engage with the world that you create in writing.
To create strong details, keep the human senses in mind. You want your reader to be immersed in the world that you create, so focus on details related to sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch as you describe people, places, and events in your narrative. See the section on Description in this chapter for more.
As always, it is important to start with a strong introduction to hook your reader into wanting to read more. Try opening the essay with an event that is interesting to introduce the story and get it going. Finally, your conclusion should help resolve the central conflict of the story and impress upon your reader the ultimate theme of the piece.
Additional feature to consider including in a narrative:
Dialogue
Dialogue is a written composition in which two or more characters are represented as conversing. Crafting dialogue is an integral part to a good story, and it is an excellent way to progress your plot and characters. Including conversations and statements from characters in your work can be a great way to show the reader their personalities and relationships.
For instance, instead of telling the reader that Mateo argued about going to his grandfather’s house, show it with dialogue:
Mateo grumbled, “Why do I have to go to Pappy’s house?”
“Because we need to visit with him, I sighed. “He’s old and won’t be around forever.”
“But I just saw him the other day! And my friends are going out. I’ll miss out if I don’t join them!” Mateo cried.
Notice that the dialogue is more interesting than simply stating what happened, and it gives us insight into the relationships and characters.
Formatting Dialogue
The following table establishes the rules for formatting dialogue in different scenarios.
Table 10.3 Dialogue Formatting Rules
| Formatting Rule | Example |
| Denote spoken words with quotation marks. | “Let’s go to the movies.” |
| Dialogue tags (e.g., said, exclaimed) go on the outside. | “I’m excited for fall break,” said Abby. |
| When you have a new speaker, start a new paragraph. | “Any plans?” Abby asked.
Maria replied, “I’m going hiking.” |
| Keep action sentences outside. | Maria nodded. “I’m going hiking.” |
| Use single quotations when quoting within dialogue (i.e., a quote within a quote). | Rachel rolled her eyes. “And then he said, ‘We were on a break.’ Can you believe him?” |
| Use lowercase for dialogue with action in the middle. | “If we don’t leave now,” Marcus yelled, “we’ll be late.” |
| Add Em dashes for interruptions. | “We need to leave before—” A crash downstairs had the sisters skittering for the fire escape. |
| Punctuation after an ellipsis is unnecessary. | “So, I guess we’re over…” he said, voice trailing off. |
| For multi-paragraph dialogue, do not end the quote at the end of the first paragraph. Add quotations at the start and end of the final paragraph. |
Marisol wiped her brow and said, “After we finish pulling weeds and trimming the box hedges, we should start planting. I want hydrangeas lining the fence. We’ll need to lay straw at some point. “It’s going to be a long day, but I think we can get it all done.” |
If you need a prompt, here are some scenes you could try:
• an argument between two main characters
• your characters introducing themselves
• the leader telling other characters what the plan will be
Exercise 10.10
In the 1950s, journalist Edward R. Murrow hosted a weekly radio series inviting listeners “to write about the core beliefs that guide your daily life.” In 2005 This I Believe was revived for National Public Radio as a way “to encourage people to begin the . . . difficult task of developing respect for beliefs different from their own.”
Go to thisIbelieve.org and review some of the stories others have submitted about their beliefs.
Write a 500-word essay describing an idea or principle you believe in. Illustrate your belief with specific examples or stories from your life. It is not all you believe; it is simply a way to introduce others to some things you value. In spite of the name, your belief need not be religious or even public. You may decide to focus on commitments to family, service, political action, or the arts. As you look for a focus, try to choose concrete language and find something that helps others understand your past, present, and future choices
Key Takeaways
- Narration is the art of storytelling.
- Narratives can be factual or fictional. In either case, narratives should emotionally engage the reader.
- Most narratives are composed of major events sequenced in chronological order.
- Time transition words and phrases are used to orient the reader in the sequence of a narrative.
- The four basic components to all narratives are plot, character, conflict, and theme.
- The use of sensory details is crucial to emotionally engaging the reader.
- A strong introduction is important to hook the reader. A strong conclusion should add resolution to the conflict and evoke the narrative’s theme.
Description
The Purpose of Description in Writing
Writers use description in writing to make sure that their audience is fully immersed in the words on the page. This typically requires the writer to describe his or her world through the use of sensory details.
Sensory details are descriptions that appeal to our sense of sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch. Your descriptions should try to focus on the five senses because we all rely on at least one or more of these senses to experience the world. The use of sensory details, then, provides you the greatest possibility of relating to your audience and thus engaging them in your writing, making descriptive writing important not only during your education but also during everyday situations.
Of course, different subjects lead themselves to an emphasis on different sensory details and not all subjects require a use of all five senses. We all recognize the importance of sight as a descriptive tool, but we don’t always realize how important other sensory details can also be. Consider, though, how often you will smell a certain smell and instantly think of something or someone specific. You might smell freshly baked bread and think of your grandma’s kitchen, or popcorn and think of a movie theater. Hearing a certain phrase might make you think of an old friend or acquaintance. You might associate a certain type of material with a blanket you had as a child. When you take a bite of pepperoni pizza you might be reminded of the slumber parties of your youth. Sensory details really can play an important part in making a description come alive.
Example
In this description of glue on skin, readers encounter details of touch and smell. Although this scene is not happening to readers at this moment, they can easily recall the smell of glue and the feeling of it between their fingers.
Table 10.4 Sensory Details Word Examples
| Sight | Sound | Touch | Taste | Smell |
| faded
faint flashy gaudy glance gleaming |
crackle
creak grumble gurgle hiss howl |
silky
slimy slippery spongy springy squashy |
appetizing
bitter bland creamy delectable delicious |
scented
spicy steno sweet waft whiff |
Click on this Sensory Details Word List for more interesting vocabulary words that convey the five senses.
Using Concrete Description
Try to use specific, concrete descriptions. For example, a writer may write beautiful to describe a tree. However, beautiful is too vague. Instead, a concrete adjective or modifier would be stronger and gives greater impact. The reader needs details for a picture to form in their heads, abstract concepts like beautiful lack a real-world analog.
Here’s a reworked description of the tree: “the sun’s rays glistened off the rain-slick leaves, even as the afternoon sky dipped towards evening.” The beautiful qualities of the tree are “shown” through concrete details instead of merely told through abstraction. This gives the reader the illusion of immediate experience, as opposed to the dictionary variety.
Figure 10.2 provides a visual representation of the difference between description without and with concrete details as described here.
Figure 10.2 Clipart Tree vs. Photo of Tree
Concrete Language
The video below gives some examples of concrete language.
Awesome Action Verbs
Using a variety of action verbs can make your writing more interesting and engaging for the reader. Action verbs are important in descriptive writing for several reasons:
- Creating Vivid Imagery: Action verbs help paint a clear and vivid picture in the reader’s mind. They describe actions in a way that allows readers to visualize the scene more effectively. For instance, “sprinted” is more vivid than “ran,” conveying a sense of speed and urgency.
- Enhancing Engagement: Using dynamic and specific action verbs keeps the reader engaged. They add energy and movement to the narrative, making the text more lively and interesting. Readers are more likely to be drawn into the story when the verbs convey strong actions.
- Conveying Specific Details: Specific action verbs provide precise details about how something is done. For example, “whispered” gives a different sense than “said,” indicating a quiet and secretive manner of speaking. This specificity helps in conveying the exact mood, tone, and action.
- Building Stronger Connections: Action verbs help build stronger connections between the characters and the actions they are performing. This connection makes the characters’ actions and emotions more relatable and understandable to the readers.
- Improving Clarity and Conciseness: Action verbs often reduce the need for additional descriptive words, making the writing clearer and more concise. Instead of saying “He quickly ran,” using “He sprinted” conveys the same idea more efficiently.
- Conveying Emotion and Intensity: The choice of action verbs can convey different levels of emotion and intensity. Words like “exploded” or “slammed” carry more intensity than “opened” or “closed,” thereby enhancing the emotional impact of the scene.
In summary, action verbs are crucial in descriptive writing because they help create vivid imagery, engage the reader, convey specific details, build stronger connections, improve clarity, and convey emotion and intensity. Their use transforms writing from mundane to compelling, drawing readers into the narrative with greater effect.
Table 10.5 Common Action Verbs and More Interesting Replacements
| Common Action Verb | More Interesting Action Verbs |
|---|---|
| Run | Sprint, Dash, Race, Bolt, Scamper |
| Walk | Stroll, Saunter, Meander, Stride, Amble |
| Eat | Devour, Munch, Nibble, Feast, Savor |
| See | Observe, Glimpse, Notice, Perceive, Spot |
| Say | Utter, Declare, Exclaim, Remark, Announce |
| Make | Create, Construct, Produce, Forge, Craft |
| Get | Obtain, Acquire, Receive, Secure, Garner |
| Go | Depart, Leave, Exit, Proceed, Advance |
| Give | Donate, Present, Bestow, Grant, Offer |
| Look | Glance, Peek, Survey, Scan, Examine |
| Think | Ponder, Reflect, Contemplate, Muse, Consider |
| Feel | Sense, Perceive, Detect, Experience, Discern |
| Tell | Inform, Notify, Reveal, Disclose, Relate |
| Help | Assist, Aid, Support, Facilitate, Encourage |
| Use | Utilize, Employ, Apply, Implement, Operate |
| Show | Display, Exhibit, Demonstrate, Reveal, Present |
| Call | Summon, Invite, Signal, Hail, Contact |
| Need | Require, Necessitate, Demand, Call for, Want |
| Try | Attempt, Endeavor, Strive, Undertake, Aim |
| Work | Labor, Toil, Operate, Function, Perform |
Similes and Metaphors
Another way to add descriptive language is to use similes and metaphors, creating a picture in readers’ heads by comparing two objects to each other. Similes and metaphors help to make connections between two ideas, concepts, or objects that clarify or give new meaning.
A simile is a comparison using the words like or as. It usually compares two dissimilar objects. For example, the bread was as dry as a bone. The comparison links a piece of bread that has become hard and white to a bone that is also hard and white. Bones often dry out, and so does bread. These similar characteristics are what make the simile effective.
A metaphor states that one thing is something else. It is a comparison, but it does NOT use like or as to make the comparison. For example, my grandmother is an open book. The comparison implies that the my grandmother is full of information that she willingly shares with others.
To make a simile or metaphor, identify an object like a sunset, tree, or river, or a concept like love, peace, or anger. Then think of another object that has some similar traits. Decide whether the words “like” or “as” will help make the connection more understandable. A good simile or metaphor will make the reader look at both objects in a new perspective.
By adding similes and metaphors to a description paper, the writer can appeal to the readers’ imagination and make the writing more interesting to read. Similes and metaphors add spark to descriptions. However, many cliches come in the form of similes and metaphors, so strive to create comparisons that are specific to your particular subject.
Avoid empty descriptors. Empty descriptors are adjectives that are vague and oftentimes are solely dependent on how the reader defines that term.
Remember that words have both a connotative and denotative meaning. You need to consider both when deciding which words (specifically modifiers) you want to use to explain your argument/idea to your readers.
The short definition is as follows: the denotation is the dictionary meaning of a word, and the connotation is the cultural context or emotion of a word.
If I use the word “pig ” in a presentation, I am probably correct in assuming that most if not all of my listeners will associate that word with its denotative meaning, a farm animal. But the word “pig ” can have more than one meaning for some listeners, depending on the context in which the word is used and the past experiences of the listener. Typically, the connotative meaning of a word has more of an emotional association and is more likely to trigger an emotional response than the denotative meaning. To continue the example above a bit further, assume that at least one listener in my audience grew up during the 1960s. This listener might hear the word “pig ” and immediately associate the word with a derogatory term used at that time to refer to a police officer
When using description, you want to be aware of connotative and denotative meanings and avoid descriptions that are vague and could be misunderstood. For instance, good, beautiful, terrific, and nice are examples of words that have specific dictionary definitions but are most often used via their connotation which is the feeling those words carry. Because connotation is based primarily on the feeling a word carries, words can be subjective to the reader and when used haphazardly can lead to misreads and confusion. A good day, for instance, can mean different things depending on one’s age, personality, or tastes.
Writing beyond College
Whether you are presenting a new product or service to a client, training new employees, or brainstorming ideas with colleagues, the use of clear, evocative detail is crucial. Make an effort to use details that express your thoughts in a way that will register with others. Sharp, concise details are always impressive.
Example of Descriptive Language
Compare the two versions of a story below. The first one tells what happened without the use of descriptive language, such as concrete words or similes and metaphors. In the second version, the contrast is apparent as the author uses descriptive language to show readers what’s happening, not simply tell them. Readers should be able to visualize the characters, places, and events highlighted in the feature piece and the second version does this.
Version 1 (without descriptive techniques):
When I was in the eighth grade, in 1957, an airplane crashed on the gym field of my school, Pacoima Junior High. This happened because of a mid-air collision between two airplanes. One plane went down in the hills; the other at my school.
Eight people died. Five of the people were in the airplanes. Three were students. Around 75 students were injured. One boy lost his leg. Many were badly burned. It was report card day and one injured boy said that he didn’t think he would be in trouble for his bad grades because his mother would be happy he had survived.
I thought about the kids who did not survive and what their parents would feel. I decided I would never separate from people I cared about without some good words of goodbye.
Version 2 (with descriptive techniques):
One bright but chilly January morning in 1957, I ambled across the campus at Pacoima Junior High, killing time, stalling on my way back from the restroom to class. It was report card day and I, like most eighth graders, felt relieved that the fall semester had come to a close and something new would get under way; new teachers, new kids to meet, new assignments to ignore. My classroom was near the gym in a row of low-slung, drably painted buildings that were symptomatic of 1950’s public architecture. I rounded a corner, giving me a direct view of the gym field, where, since no one had to dress for P.E. classes that day, only a few people were out playing. I saw no girls on the field at all, just boys playing kick ball, soft ball and generally hanging out.
Suddenly a high pitched scream, a whine of deep intensity came out of the sunny sky. I looked up, confused, and heard a blistering boom, an explosion so loud that the fence in front of the field began to wave, to undulate. I stopped. The sky filled with dark smoke and bits of pink and green fragments of insulation one might find in walls or in packaging. I thought, “Oh, confetti!” The silence that followed lasted for a few timeless moments. Unreal. The moment was shattered by the passing bell and kids began to stream out of classes. Emergency bells began to sound and kids went back into classes for the drop-drill routine that made me wonder why the Russians would bomb an obscure junior high in the north of the San Fernando Valley.
Next, an all-clear bell rang. Then things changed quickly. Injured kids came off the field, dazed, hurt and seeking help. Mothers who lived nearby raced between the buildings and across the quad, shouting and crying in a crazed effort to find their kids. Small airplanes buzzed overhead. Cops flooded the campus. Fire trucks and ambulances circled the school seeking close entry to the destruction on the field. I recall being herded into the school library, relieved to find a space where an orderly mood prevailed even as parents met up with their children and students waited for instructions about what to do. One boy came in with oil and blood splattered on his clothing. He seemed unhurt. He smiled and said, “Well, I won’t get any punishment for this report card. My mom will be so happy I’m alive.”
Eight people died that day. Three of them were students. Another seventy or so kids were injured. One kid on the field survived because a P.E. teacher grabbed a towel from the gym shower room and staunched the blood pouring out from his severed leg. Two boys died on the field; one died two days later in the hospital. I sat at a table in the library and remembered having breakfast with my family that morning. Did any of those dead kids have hard words with their families that morning? Did any parent fail to kiss a kid goodbye? I vowed, in that library on January 26, 1957, that I would never leave a loved one with words that, were they my last words, I would forever regret.
Exercise 10.11
On a separate sheet of paper, describe the following five items in a short paragraph. Use at least three of the five senses for each description.
- Night
- Beach
- City
- Dinner
- Stranger
The Structure of a Description Essay
Description essays typically describe a person, a place, or an object using sensory details. The structure of a descriptive essay is more flexible than in some of the other rhetorical modes. The introduction of a description essay should set up the tone and point of the essay. The thesis should convey the writer’s overall impression of the person, place, or object that will be further described in the body paragraphs.
The organization of the essay may follow spatial order, an arrangement of ideas according to physical characteristics or appearance. Depending on what the writer describes, the organization could move from top to bottom, left to right, near to far, warm to cold, frightening to inviting, and so on.
For example, if the subject were a client’s kitchen undergoing renovation, you might start at one side of the room and move slowly across to the other end, describing appliances, cabinetry, and so on. Or you might choose to start with older remnants of the kitchen and progress to the new installations.
Table 10.6 Transition Words and Phrases for Description
| above
adjacent to below beyond |
centrally
here nearby neighboring on |
opposite to
peripherally there wherever |
Exercise 10.12
On a separate sheet of paper, choose an organizing strategy and then execute it in a short paragraph for three of the following six items:
- Train station
- Your office
- Your car
- A coffee shop
- Lobby of a movie theater
Share your work with a classmate and compare your thoughts on the descriptions. Did your classmate correctly understand your deescriptios? Essentially, were they able to describe back to you what you intended them to visualize using yoru descriptive language? If not, how could you provide more detail to describe it and lead them to the correct conclusion?
Writing a Description Essay
Choosing a subject is the first step in writing a description essay. Once you have chosen the person, place, or object you want to describe, your challenge is to write an effective thesis statement to guide your essay.
The remainder of your essay describes your subject in a way that best expresses your thesis. Remember, you should have a strong sense of how you will organize your essay. Choose a strategy and stick to it. Every part of your essay should use vivid sensory details. The more you can appeal to your readers’ senses, the more they will be engaged in your essay.
Student Essay Sample: Description Example Essay
Key Takeaways
- Description essays should describe something vividly to the reader using strong sensory details.
- Sensory details appeal to the five human senses: sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch.
- A description essay should start with the writer’s main impression of a person, a place, or an object.
- Use spatial order to organize your descriptive writing.
Classification
The Purpose of Classification in Writing
The purpose of classification is to break down broad subjects into smaller, more manageable, more specific parts. We classify things in our daily lives, often without even thinking about it. Cell phones, for example, have now become part of a broad category. They can be classified according to the brand (for example, the Android vs. iPhone debate). However, even those categories can be further broken down as there are groupings such as version, size, color, processing system, etc.
Smaller categories, and the way in which these categories are created, help us make sense of the world. Keep both of these elements in mind when writing a classification essay.
Choose topics that you know well when writing classification essays. The more you know about a topic, the more you can break it into smaller, more interesting parts. Adding interest and insight will enhance your classification essays.
Exercise 10.13
On a separate sheet of paper, break the following categories into smaller classifications.
- The United States
- Colleges and universities
- Beverages
- Fashion
- Sports
The Structure of a Classification Essay
The classification essay opens with an introductory paragraph that introduces the broader topic. The thesis should then explain how that topic is divided into subgroups and why. Take the following excerpt from the introductory paragraph of a classification essay, for example:
When people think of New York, they often think of only New York City. But New York is actually a diverse state with a full range of activities to do, sights to see, and cultures to explore. In order to better understand the diversity of New York state, it is helpful to break it into these five separate regions: Long Island, New York City, Western New York, Central New York, and Northern New York.
This section explains not only the category and subcategory but also the rationale for breaking it into those categories. Through this classification essay, the writer hopes to show his or her readers understand the complexities of the state as a whole instead of only focusing on its most popular city.
Audience analysis is highly important in this style of essay because who you are are trying to explain your classifications to will determine how specific your categories, evidence, and examples are.
Each body paragraph of a classification essay is dedicated to fully illustrating each of the subcategories. In the previous example, then, each region of New York would have its own paragraph.
The conclusion should bring all the categories and subcategories back together again to show the reader the big picture. In the previous example, the conclusion might explain how the various sights and activities of each region of New York add to its diversity and complexity.
Exercise 10.14
Using your classifications from “Exercise 10.13,” write a brief paragraph explaining why you chose to organize each main category in the way that you did.
Writing a Classification Essay
Start with an engaging opening that will adequately introduce the general topic that you will be dividing into smaller subcategories. Your thesis should come at the end of your introduction. It should include the topic, your subtopics, and the reason you are choosing to break down the topic in the way that you are. Use the following classification thesis equation:
topic + subtopics + rationale for the subtopics = thesis.
The organizing strategy of a classification essay is dictated by the initial topic and the subsequent subtopics. Each body paragraph is dedicated to fully illustrating each of the subtopics. In a way, coming up with a strong topic pays double rewards in a classification essay. Not only do you have a good topic, but you also have a solid organizational structure within which to write.
Be sure you use strong details and explanations for each subcategory paragraph that help explain and support your thesis. Also, be sure to give examples to illustrate your points. Finally, write a conclusion that links all the subgroups together again. The conclusion should successfully wrap up your essay by connecting it to the topic initially discussed in the introduction.
Key Takeaways
- The purpose of classification is to break a subject into smaller, more manageable, more specific parts.
- Smaller subcategories help us make sense of the world, and the way in which these subcategories are created also helps us make sense of the world.
- A classification essay is organized by its subcategories.
Process Analysis
The Purpose of Process Analysis in Writing
The purpose of a process analysis essay is to explain how to do something or how something works. In either case, the formula for a process analysis essay remains the same. The process is articulated into clear, definitive steps.
Almost everything we do involves following a step-by-step process. From riding a bike as children to learning various jobs as adults, we initially needed instructions to effectively execute the task. Likewise, we have likely had to instruct others, so we know how important good directions are—and how frustrating it is when they are poorly put together.
Writing beyond College
The next time you have to explain a process to someone at work, be mindful of how clearly you articulate each step. Strong communication skills are critical for workplace satisfaction and advancement. Effective process analysis plays a critical role in developing that skill set. Also, remember our discussion from “Description” in which we discussed the difference between connotation and denotation. Make sure the process explanation is not saturated with vague words that are often driven by personal understandings of what that word signifies.
Exercise 10.15
On a separate sheet of paper, make a bulleted list of all the steps that you feel would be required to clearly illustrate three of the following four processes:
- Tying a shoelace
- Parallel parking
- Planning a successful first date
- Being an effective communicator
Watch the following video for a fun example of creating specific instructions: “This ‘Exact Instructions Challenge’ is so Hilarious”
The Structure of a Process Analysis Essay
The process analysis essay opens with a discussion of the process and a thesis statement that states the goal of the process.
The organization of a process analysis essay typically follows chronological order. The steps of the process are conveyed in the order in which they usually occur. Body paragraphs will be constructed based on these steps. If a particular step is complicated and needs a more thorough explanation, then it will likely take up a paragraph on its own. But if a series of simple steps is easier to understand, then the steps can be grouped into a single paragraph.
You can refer back to “Classification.” In order to decide which parts of the process need to appear alone or grouped together, you may need to classify the individual steps into sections in order to better understand the organization your paper should take.
The time transition phrases covered in the “Narration” and “Illustration” sections are also helpful in organizing process analysis essays. Words such as first, second, third, next, and finally are helpful cues to orient the reader and organize the content of the essay.
Exercise 10.16
Choose two of the lists you created in “Exercise 10.15” and start writing out the processes in paragraph form. Try to construct paragraphs based on the complexity of each step. For complicated steps, dedicate an entire paragraph. If less complicated steps fall in succession, group them into a single paragraph.
Have someone else read your process analysis to make sure it makes sense. How clearly is your idea is coming across? Can your peer successfully complete the process you have laid out? If no, troupleshoot any confusing spots by having your peer explain how they would complete the step based off the explanations you provided.
Writing a Process Analysis Essay
Choose a topic that is interesting, is relatively complex, and can be explained in a series of steps. As with other rhetorical writing modes, choose a process that you know well so that you can more easily describe the finer details about each step in the process. Your thesis statement should come at the end of your introduction, and it should state the final outcome of the process you are describing.
Body paragraphs are composed of the steps in the process. Each step should be expressed using strong details and clear examples. Use time transition phrases to help organize steps in the process and to orient readers, such as those in Figure 10.5 below. The conclusion should thoroughly describe the result of the process described in the body paragraphs.
Table 10.7 Transition Words and Phrases for Process Analysis
| first, second, (etc.)
finally as soon as hence |
then
from here on to begin with in the end |
next
last of all after before |
Exercise 10.17
Key Takeaways
- A process analysis essay explains how to do something, how something works, or both.
- The process analysis essay opens with a discussion of the process and a thesis statement that states the outcome of the process.
- The organization of a process analysis essay typically follows a chronological sequence.
- Time transition phrases are particularly helpful in process analysis essays to organize steps and orient the reader.
Definition
The Purpose of Definition in Writing
The purpose of a definition essay may seem self-explanatory: the purpose of the definition essay is to simply define something. But defining terms in writing is often more complicated than just consulting a dictionary. In fact, the way we define terms can have far-reaching consequences for individuals as well as collective groups.
![Two men drinking at a table, a dog lying at their feet], 1865–1879](https://pressbooks.pub/app/uploads/sites/15725/2024/06/651f527e-ee42-497c-ad2a-d79ff1c18fe4_2627-185x300.jpg)
Take, for example, a word like alcoholism. The way in which one defines alcoholism depends on its legal, moral, and medical contexts. Lawyers may define alcoholism in terms of its legality; parents may define alcoholism in terms of its morality; and doctors will define alcoholism in terms of symptoms and diagnostic criteria. Think also of terms that people tend to debate in our broader culture. How we define words, such as marriage and climate change, has enormous impacts on policy decisions and even on daily decisions. Think about conversations couples may have in which words like commitment, respect, or love need clarification.
Defining terms within a relationship, or any other context, can at first be difficult, but once a definition is established between two people or a group of people, it is easier to have productive dialogues. Definitions, then, establish the way in which people communicate ideas. They set parameters for a given discourse, which is why they are so important.
When writing definition essays, avoid terms that are too simple and that lack complexity. Think in terms of concepts, such as hero, immigration, or loyalty, rather than physical objects. Definitions of concepts, rather than objects, are often fluid and contentious, making for a more effective definition essay. It is important to choose a concept as opposed to something similar to a physical item as physical items are not up for debate in the sense that a “chair” is a “chair” is a “chair”; however, justice to a lawyer may look entirely different than how a parent views justice.
Writing beyond College
Definitions play a critical role in all workplace environments. Take the term sexual harassment, for example. Sexual harassment is broadly defined on the federal level, but each company may have additional criteria that define it further. Knowing how your workplace defines and treats all sexual harassment allegations is important. Think, too, about how your company defines lateness, productivity, or contributions.
Exercise 10.18
On a separate sheet of paper, write about a time in your own life in which the definition of a word, or the lack of a definition, caused an argument. Your term could be something as simple as the category of an all-star in sports or how to define a good movie. Or it could be something with higher stakes and wider impact, such as a political argument. Explain how the conversation began, how the argument hinged on the definition of the word, and how the incident was finally resolved.
Share with a classmate and compare not only your responses but each other’s understandings of the words under scrutiny. Were your definitions different? What about your personal life changed the way your perceive that word? How can you define that term that would allow you to address those differences before they are drawn to your attention?
The Structure of a Definition Essay
The definition essay opens with a general discussion of the term to be defined. You then state as your thesis your definition of the term.
The rest of the essay should explain the rationale for your definition. Remember that a dictionary’s definition is limiting, and you should not rely strictly on the dictionary entry. Instead, consider the context in which you are using the word. Context identifies the circumstances, conditions, or setting in which something exists or occurs. Often words take on different meanings depending on the context in which they are used. For example, the ideal leader in a battlefield setting is very different than a leader in an elementary school setting. If a context is missing from the essay, the essay may be too short or the main points could be confusing or misunderstood.
The remainder of the essay should explain different aspects of the term’s definition. For example, if you were defining a good leader in an elementary classroom setting, you might define such a leader according to personality traits: patience, consistency, and flexibility. Each attribute would be explained in its own paragraph.
Writing beyond College
It is a good idea to occasionally assess your role in the workplace. You can do this through the process of definition. Identify your role at work by defining not only the routine tasks but also those gray areas where your responsibilities might overlap with those of others. Coming up with a clear definition of roles and responsibilities can add value to your résumé and even increase productivity in the workplace.
Exercise 10.19
On a separate sheet of paper, define each of the following items in your own terms. If you can, establish a context for your definition.
- Bravery
- Adulthood
- Consumer culture
- Violence
- Art
Writing a Definition Essay
Choose a topic that will be complex enough to be discussed at length. Choosing a word or phrase of personal relevance often leads to a more interesting and engaging essay.
After you have chosen your word or phrase, start your essay with an introduction that establishes the relevancy of the term in the chosen specific context. Your thesis comes at the end of the introduction, and it should clearly state your definition of the term within a specific context. Establishing a functional context from the beginning will orient readers and minimize misunderstandings.
The body paragraphs should each be dedicated to explaining a different facet of your definition. Make sure to use clear examples and strong details to illustrate your points. Your concluding paragraph should pull together all the different elements of your definition to ultimately reinforce your thesis.
Exercise 10.20
Choose a label that you would give yourself (such as good friend, daughter, brother, student, etc). For this label, consider both the denotation of the word and your connotation of it. Then, write paragraph that defines this word using at least one other rhetorical techniques such as illustration, description, cause and effect, comparison and contrast, and narration.
Student Example Essay: Definition Example Essay_Victoria Mardueno
Key Takeaways
- Definitions establish the way in which people communicate ideas. They set parameters for a given discourse.
- Context affects the meaning and usage of words.
- The thesis of a definition essay should clearly state the writer’s definition of the term in the specific context.
- Body paragraphs should explain the various facets of the definition stated in the thesis.
- The conclusion should pull all the elements of the definition together at the end and reinforce the thesis.
Comparison and Contrast
The Purpose of Comparison and Contrast in Writing
Comparison in writing discusses elements that are similar while contrast in writing discusses elements that are different. A compare-and-contrast essay, then, analyzes two subjects by comparing them, contrasting them, or both.
The key to a good compare-and-contrast essay is to choose two or more subjects that connect in a meaningful way. The purpose of comparing or contrasting two items/ideas is not to state the obvious but rather to illuminate subtle differences or unexpected similarities. For example, if you wanted to focus on contrasting two items you would not pick English and math; rather, you might choose to compare and contrast two styles of English (academic writing and creative writing) or math (calculus and college algebra) to highlight subtle differences. For example, academic writing depends on developing a foundation of argument based on research and logic, while creative writing has a foundation developed on things like characters, plots, and world-building. Drawing distinctions between elements in a similar category will increase the audience’s understanding of that category, which is the purpose of the compare-and-contrast essay.
Similarly, to focus on comparison, choose two subjects that seem at first to be unrelated. For a comparison essay, you likely would not choose two types of writing styles or two fields of math because they share so many of the same properties already. Rather, you might try to compare how English and math are quite similar. The more divergent the two subjects initially seem the more interesting a comparison essay will be.
Writing beyond College
Comparing and contrasting is also an evaluative tool. In order to make accurate evaluations about a given topic, you must first know the critical points of similarity and difference. Comparing and contrasting is a primary tool for many workplace assessments. You have likely compared and contrasted yourself to other colleagues. Employee advancements, pay raises, hiring, and firing are typically conducted using comparison and contrast. Comparison and contrast could be used to evaluate companies, departments, or individuals.
Exercise 10.21
Brainstorm an essay that leans toward contrast. Choose one of the following three categories. Pick two examples from each. Then come up with one similarity and three differences between the examples.
- Romantic comedies
- Internet search engines
- Cell phones
- Social media apps
Exercise 10.22
Brainstorm an essay that leans toward comparison. Choose one of the following three items. Then come up with one difference and three similarities.
- Department stores and discount retail stores
- Fast food chains and fine dining restaurants
- Dogs and cats
The Structure of a Comparison and Contrast Essay
One way in which a compare/contrast essay is different from other rhetorical modes we’ve discussed is that you have two options for how you structure your essay.
You can structure your essay in:
- Subject-by-subject (also called “one side at a time”)
- Point-by-point
To better understand each structure, let’s take an example of each. Imagine that we are going to write an essay that compares two popular stores, Wal-Mart and Target. In the essay, we’ll discuss the prices, the customer service, and the quality of goods at each store.
First, let’s see an example of subject-by-subject: Essentially, write a separate body about each subject, but you discuss the same supporting points for both subjects.
I. Introduction: Wal-Mart vs. Target
II. Wal-Mart
- Prices
- Customer Service
- Quality of Goods
III. Target
- Prices
- Customer Service
- Quality of Goods
IV. Conclusion
Notice that the body of the essay is essentially divided in half. Also notice that the same three supporting points are discussed in each half and in the same order. This gives the essay a really clear organization.
Next, let’s see an example of point-by-point: Instead of organizing the essay by the two subjects, we will organize the essay by the three supporting points. In each section, first make a point about one subject, then follow it with a comparable point about the other.
I. Introduction: Wal-Mart vs. Target
II. Prices
- Wal-Mart
- Target
III. Customer Service
- Wal-Mart
- Target
IV. Quality of Goods
- Wal-Mart
- Target
V. Conclusion
Notice that in this method, there is more interaction between the two subjects. Each point that you make about Wal-Mart is directly followed by the same point about Target.
The organizational structure you choose depends on the nature of the topic, your purpose, and your audience. Generally, subject-by-subject structure may be best for essays that emphasize comparison, while point-by-point structure may suit essays that focus on contrast. However, this is a guideline, not a rule.
Given that compare-and-contrast essays analyze the relationship between two subjects, it is helpful to have some phrases on hand that will cue the reader to such analysis.
Table 10.8 Transition Words and Phrases of Comparison
| one similarity | another similarity | both |
| like | likewise | similarly |
| in a similar fashion |
| one difference | another difference | conversely |
| in contrast | unlike | while |
| whereas |
Using these phrases throughout your essay will serve as reminders to the reader that you are comparing and contrasting your two subjects. They will keep the essay focused on the task at hand.
Exercise 10.23
Create an outline for each of the items you chose in “Exercise 1” and “Exercise 2”. Use the point-by-point organizing strategy for one of them, and use the subject organizing strategy for the other.
Share your plans with a peer. Are there flaws? Is one syle of organization clearer than the other? What aspects about the organization are clearest?
Writing a Comparison and Contrast Essay
First choose whether you want to compare seemingly disparate subjects, contrast seemingly similar subjects, or compare and contrast subjects. Once you have decided on a topic, introduce it with an engaging opening paragraph. Your thesis should come at the end of the introduction, and it should establish the subjects you will compare, contrast, or both as well as state what can be learned from doing so.
The body of the essay can be organized in one of two ways: by subject or by individual points. The organizing strategy that you choose will depend on, as always, your audience and your purpose. You may also consider your particular approach to the subjects as well as the nature of the subjects themselves; some subjects might better lend themselves to one structure or the other. Make sure to use comparison and contrast phrases to cue the reader to the ways in which you are analyzing the relationship between the subjects.
After you finish analyzing the subjects, write a conclusion that connects the main points of the essay and reinforces your thesis.
Writing beyond College
Many business presentations are conducted using comparison and contrast. The organizing strategies—by subject or individual points—could also be used for organizing a presentation. Keep this in mind as a way of organizing your content the next time you or a colleague have to present something at work.
Exercise 10.24
Write a compare and/or contrast essay that compares and/or contrasts two topics. You can choose any topic from the list below:
- Two jobs you have held
- A good and a bad job interview
- A place as it is now and as it was years ago
- Two towns or cities
- Nature in the city and in the country
- A passive student and an active student
- Two generations of college students
- Two types of (or specific) police officers, doctors, teachers, preachers,
- Living at college and living at home
- A small college and a large university or a four-year college and a community college
- Living together and being married
- Shopping malls and neighborhood stores
- Two people in your life who have a similar relationship to you (two friends, two siblings, etc.)
Exercise 10.25
Write a comparison and/or contrast essay to address one of the following prompts:
- Consider the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s to today’s movement for equality. What has changed? How are our problems today in relation to civil rights different from or similar to those of the Civil Rights Movement?
- Watch Toy Ads and Learning Gender. What are girl toys and what are boy toys? What does the production and marketing of those toys say about our expectations of men and women in this country?
- Choose two characters from different films/programs and compare/contrast their thematic relevance within that genre. For instance, you might consider how one character defies stereotypes while the other affirms those same stereotypes. You might consider how the characters’ different portrayals reflects the concerns or norms of the time period. For instance, you might compare the portrayal of Batman in the 1980s to that of the 2000s. Or you might compare Elena in The Vampire Diaries to Bella in Twilight.
- Compare two films from the same genre in order to illustrate your opinion concerning a controversy surrounding that particular genre.
- Compare a book to its film adaptation to explain the significance of changes in the story or character development. For example, the movie I am Legend has a very different ending than the original story. Why would they make such a significant change? Does the change alter the meaning of the story?
Student Example Essay: Compare Contrast Essay Example Rion Radford
Key Takeaways
- A compare-and-contrast essay analyzes two subjects by either comparing them, contrasting them, or both.
- The purpose of writing a comparison or contrast essay is not to state the obvious but rather to illuminate subtle differences or unexpected similarities between two subjects.
- The thesis should clearly state the subjects that are to be compared, contrasted, or both, and it should state what is to be learned from doing so.
- There are two main organizing strategies for compare-and-contrast essays.
- Organize by the subjects themselves, one then the other.
- Organize by individual points, in which you discuss each subject in relation to each point.
- Use phrases of comparison or phrases of contrast to signal to readers how exactly the two subjects are being analyzed.
Cause and Effect
The Purpose of Cause and Effect in Writing
It is often considered human nature to ask, “why?” and “how?” We want to know how our child got sick so we can better prevent it from happening in the future, or why our colleague received a pay raise because we want one as well. We want to know how much money we will save over the long term if we buy a hybrid car. These examples identify only a few of the relationships we think about in our lives, but each shows the importance of understanding cause and effect.
A cause is something that produces an event or condition; an effect is what results from an event or condition. The cause-and-effect essay determines how various phenomena relate in terms of origins and results. Sometimes the connection between cause and effect is clear, but often determining the exact relationship between the two is more complex. For example, the following effects of a cold may be easily identifiable: a sore throat, runny nose, and a cough. But determining the cause of the sickness can be far more difficult. Many causes are possible, and to complicate matters, these could have combined to cause the sickness. That is, more than one cause may be responsible for any given effect. Therefore, cause-and-effect discussions are often complicated and frequently lead to debates and arguments.
Use the complex nature of cause and effect to your advantage. Often it is not necessary, or even possible, to find the exact cause of an event or to name the exact effect. So, when formulating a thesis, you can claim one of a number of causes or effects to be the primary, or main, cause or effect. As soon as you claim that one cause or one effect is more crucial than the others, you have developed a thesis.
Exercise 10.26
Consider the causes and effects in the following thesis statements. List a cause and effect for each one on your own sheet of paper.
- The growing childhood obesity epidemic is a result of technology.
- Much of the wildlife is dying because of the oil spill.
- The town continued programs that it could no longer afford, so it went bankrupt.
- More young people became politically active as use of the Internet spread throughout society.
- While many experts believed the rise in violence was due to the poor economy, it was really due to the summer-long heat wave.
Exercise 10.27
Write three cause-and-effect thesis statements of your own for each of the following five broad topics.
- Health and nutrition
- Sports
- Media
- Politics
- History
The Structure of a Cause-and-Effect Essay
The cause-and-effect essay opens with a general introduction to the topic, which then leads to a thesis that states the main cause, main effect, or various causes and effects of a condition or event.
The cause-and-effect essay is typically organized in one of the following ways:
- Start with the cause and then discuss the effects.
- Start with the effect and then discuss the causes.
Regardless of which structure you choose, be sure to explain each element of the essay fully and completely. Explaining complex relationships requires the full use of evidence, such as scientific studies, expert testimony, statistics, and anecdotes.
Because cause-and-effect essays determine how phenomena are linked, they make frequent use of certain words and phrases that denote such linkage. See Figure 10.6 “Transitions of Causation” for examples of such terms.
Table 10.10 Transition Words and Phrases of Causation
|
as a result |
hence |
|
consequently |
since |
|
because |
thus |
|
due to |
therefore |
The conclusion should wrap up the discussion and reinforce the thesis, leaving the reader with a clear understanding of the relationship that was analyzed.
Be careful of resorting to empty speculation. In writing, speculation amounts to unsubstantiated guessing. Writers are particularly prone to such trappings in cause-and-effect arguments due to the complex nature of finding links between phenomena. Be sure to have clear evidence to support the claims that you make.
A common error students make is to assume that because one event precedes another that the first event caused the second; this is referred to as a post hoc fallacy. Superstitions are a great example of a post hoc fallacy in action; for instance, if you buy new shoelaces before a basketball game and then win the game, then you might assume the shoelaces were lucky when your hard work practicing is likely the reason you won. A post hoc fallacy is an error in logic and should be avoided by demonstrating how one event led to the other in your body paragraphs.
Exercise 10.28
Look at some of the cause-and-effect relationships from “Exercise 2.” Outline the links you listed. Outline one using a cause-then-effect structure. Outline the other using the effect-then-cause structure.
Share your outlines with a peer. Is the outline you chose most effective for the discussion? Should you have used the other layout? What is particulary clear about the connection? What seems vague/underdeveloped?
Writing a Cause-and-Effect Essay
Choose an event or condition that you think has an interesting cause-and-effect relationship. Introduce your topic in an engaging way. End your introduction with a thesis that states the main cause, the main effect, or both.
Organize your essay by starting with either the cause-then-effect structure or the effect-then-cause structure. Within each section, you should clearly explain and support the causes and effects using a full range of evidence. If you are writing about multiple causes or multiple effects, you may choose to sequence either in terms of order of importance. In other words, order the causes or effects from least to most important (or vice versa).
Use the phrases of causation when trying to forge connections between various events or conditions. This will help organize your ideas and orient the reader. End your essay with a conclusion that connects your main points and reinforces your thesis.
Writing beyond College
The cause and effect rhetorical mode is used in business, politics, social media, and many other writing contexts. This mode is particularly useful to persuade an audience to take a course of action based on the causes, effects, or both of a phenomenon. This mode might be useful for persuading your employer to allow employees to work remotely to increase productivity and reduce employee turnover.
Exercise 10.29
Read “The Distinct, Positive Impact of a Good Dad” and address the following questions.
- What is the author’s thesis statement? Does the author establish a clear debatable position on the issue?
- Does the author focus on causes or effects?
- What kind of evidence does the author use to support their position (e.g., studies, expert opinions, published works, etc.)? Does the evidence seem compelling? Why or why not?
Exercise 10.30
Write an essay that analyzes the causes and/or effects of an issue. Develop a thesis-driven essay that takes a position on the issue and use cause and effect mode to defend your position.
- Is ADHD on the rise? What factors might contribute to the rise in ADHD? What impact does ADHD have on a person’s experience in school, work, or relationships?
- Alternative medicines, such as essential oils and acupuncture, have been increasingly popular. Why are they more popular today? Are they effective in treating illnesses? Is this related to the decrease in reliance on medical establishments or “Big Pharma”? Why are people skeptical of medical establishments and scientific studies?
- “Fake News” is a rally cry that is spread through social media by some politicians as a way to insult news organizations they don’t like (rather than news that is actually false). What affect does this have on our perception of the news media? How does this affect our political and social structures?
- How does deliberate misinformation (“fake news”) spread via the Internet affect our country? How might this affect democracy? How does it impact individuals and communities? Why are people spreading misinformation?
- Is there a rise of people who identify as “spiritual” instead of “religious”? Why? What impact does this have on organized religion and on the individual?
- How might the Internet have contributed to an increase in hate crimes or the spread of racist or hate-based rhetoric?
- People are putting their private lives on display in YouTube, Instagram, SnapChat, and other forms of media. How has this affected the individuals, the followers of those people, or our culture in general? Or you might consider if this is a good or a bad trend.
- Which is more effective in decreasing teen pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases: sex education or abstinence only education?
- Consider the foods we eat: Is sugar really addictive and if so, what do we do about it? What are its effects on our bodies? Is caffeine damaging to our health? Is gluten really bad for us?
- Are voucher programs and charter schools damaging public schools?
- What are the causes and effects of bullying? Do zero tolerance policies regarding bullying really work?
Student Sample Essay:
Key Takeaways
- The purpose of the cause-and-effect essay is to determine how various phenomena are related.
- The thesis states what the writer sees as the main cause, main effect, or various causes and effects of a condition or event.
- The cause-and-effect essay can be organized in one of these two primary ways:
- Start with the cause and then discuss the effect.
- Start with the effect and then discuss the cause.
- Strong evidence is particularly important in the cause-and-effect essay due to the complexity of determining connections between phenomena.
- Phrases of causation are helpful in signaling links between various elements in the essay.
Evaluation
The Purpose of Evaluation in Writing
Evaluation is a critical review of something, such as a product, service, or text. This type of essay makes a judgment based on specific criteria, offering research and examples as support. Thus, the essay must have reasons to support the stated opinion and evidence to back-up those reasons.
The Structure of an Evaluation
Criteria. What are attributes that constitute the ideal version of the chosen product, service, or text? What does the product, service, or text have to accomplish to be considered the best? It is important to be clear in establishing your criteria as this will be used to form and support your opinion on the product, service, or text being evaluated.
Opinion. Determine whether or not the product, service, or text meets the criteria. What is your judgment of the product, service, or text? Is it ideal or is it lacking in some areas?
Evidence. Once the criteria have been identified and an opinion stated, provide evidence. How does the product, service, or text meet the criteria? How do you know? Provide details to support the opinion. Without reasons and evidence to support the opinion, the audience won’t be persuaded.
Writing an Evaluation Essay
The thesis of an evaluation essay states the author’s opinion on the subject. For example, in “Does Pop Music Sound Louder, Dumber, and More the Same,” the thesis asserts research has “indicated that, on the whole, popular music over the past half-century has become blander and louder than it used to be.” The author states a specific judgment, or opinion, about popular music.
Music taste is subjective. Therefore, the author provides research to support this opinion:
[…] since the ‘50s, there has been a decrease not only in the diversity of chords in a given song, but also in the number of novel transitions, or musical pathways, between them. In other words, while it’s true that pop songs have always been far more limited in their harmonic vocabularies than, say, a classical symphony, past decades saw more inventive ways of linking their harmonies together than we hear now. It’s the difference between Carly Rae Jepsen’s “Call Me Maybe,” which contains four simple chords presented one after another almost as blocks, and Alex North’s “Unchained Melody,” which, though also relatively harmonically simple (it employs about six or seven chords, depending on the version), transitions smoothly from chord to chord due to more subtle orchestration.
To support his main idea that pop is blander, he compares a popular 1955 song to a current song as evidence, pointing out the musical differences.
Exercise 10.31
Read “Donald Glover’s Shocking ‘This Is America’ Video Tackles Racism, Gun Violence” and answer the following questions.
What criteria does the author establish to evaluate Donald Glover’s video? Does the author provide adequate evidence to support his opinion?
Watch the video yourself and write your own evaluation.
Choose a new product in a category you know well, such as a computer or a motorcycle, and write a review as if you were a columnist for a newspaper, magazine, or blog. Using an invention technique of your choice such as freewriting or brainstorming, prewrite to elicit what you know about the product and the product category. Then, observe the product and try it out, so that you can review its positives and negatives. If you need specific information that you do not know, consult the product advertising, packaging, or instruction manual.
You can use vivid language and insider slang in order to provide an enjoyable experience for your reader. Remember, however, that this is an argument. You need to evaluate whether the product is a good or bad selection for its target audience and why.
Evidence
While many evaluative essays are based primarily on the opinion of the person writing the evaluation, it’s important for an author to find ways to bolster his/her authority or ethos in the paper. Remember, one of the ways to increase an author’s credibility is to use quotes or examples from credible sources. In addition, including facts and statistics can be a great way to support some arguments using a logical appeal. Quoting from a well-known expert, for example, shows your audience that your opinions are supported by others. If you are evaluating a restaurant, including quotes from other reviewers from a site like Yelp might also help to make your argument more authoritative.
Remember that each reason should be supported by solid evidence.
The evidence of an evaluation essay consists of the supporting details authors provide based on their judgment of the criteria.
For example, if the subject of an evaluation is a restaurant, a judgment could be “Kay’s Bistro provides an unrivaled experience in fine dining.” Some authors evaluate fine dining restaurants by identifying appropriate criteria in order to rate the establishment’s food quality, service, and atmosphere. For example, if the bread served at the start of the meal was fresh out of the oven, then describing that fresh bread would be evidence in evaluation of the restaurant; it would fall under the criterion of “food quality.”
Another example of evaluation is literary analysis; judgments may be made about a character in the story based on the character’s actions, characteristics, and past history within the story. The scenes in the story are evidence for why readers have a certain opinion of the character, so you might include text from the story as evidence in your essay. You might also quote the published opinions of other writers who have already evaluated this story.
In a movie review, for each of the criteria that you stated, you’d provide specific evidence from the movie. Describe pivotal scenes that led to your judgment. For example, if a movie included a really emotional scene that stuck with you long after you saw the movie, you could cite that as evidence of the quality of the acting.
Exercise 10.32
Read “‘The Batman’ is the Batman Movie We Deserve.” Then answer these questions:
- How does the essay serve as an evaluation essay? In other words, what judgment is it making?
- What are the criteria Nayman uses to judge Batman as a franchise? What criteria does he use to judge the newest Batman movie?
- How does Nayman address counterarguments?
- What kinds of evidence does he use and from what sources?
- Whether or not you’ve seen The Batman, do you agree with Nayman’s judgment about the movie? Explain your answer.
Writing beyond College
Evaluation is a method that applies in a variety of contexts in business. You might be asked to evaluate a product that your company wishes to purchase or a service that your company is considering using. Understanding how to logically approach an evaluation allows you to make good choices supported by facts.
Student Example Essay:
Key Takeaways
The purpose of an evaluation is to examine a product, service, or text using specific criteria.
You must establish specific criteria to guide your evaluation; provide a clear opinion regarding whether the product, service, or text meets the criteria; and support your opinion with evidence.
The thesis establishes your opinion on the subject and the body of the evaluation provides specific examples to support that opinion.
Proposal
The Purpose of Proposal in Writing
Town halls, city councils, and businesses throughout the country are right now debating economic, political, and social challenges facing their communities. Before they can even debate the issue, they must first understand the scope and background of the problem. Then, they must persuade their communities to take the necessary steps towards a resolution. In many of these instances, citizens will use the rhetorical mode called a proposal to introduce a problem, advocate for a solution to that problem, and then offer the rationale for the recommended solution. A proposal is, therefore, persuasive in nature. You cannot convince someone to take action if they are not aware there is a problem or, alternatively, if they don’t believe the problem is serious.
The Structure of a Proposal Essay
Problem. Proposals typically address practical problems that impact your work, school, or community. Your problem should be large enough to be of a critical nature to the audience. Practical problems that a proposal might address could include mandatory class attendance policies, safety in a campus building, cyberbullying, texting and driving, fatalities on a specific highway, child hunger, or any other issue that can be addressed through the actions of individuals.
Evidence for the problem. You will provide specific evidence to persuade your audience that the problem exists and requires our immediate attention. In creating your proposal, you want to consider your audience’s knowledge and beliefs about the problem. What information do they need so that they understand the problem’s significance and feel that it is urgent enough to take action?
Solution. Formulate a clear and feasible solution to the problem. Based on your research, you will offer a series of creative small, specific, and feasible actions that your readers can take to at least partially resolve the identified problem.
Evidence for the solution. You may provide specific evidence to persuade your audience that your solution will be effective in addressing the problem. What solutions have been proposed so far and have they affected change?
Benefits and opposition. Explain the benefits of the proposed solution and address possible objections. You will provide the reader with compelling and logical reasons that prove the benefits of taking the suggested actions. You will also review possible objections to your proposed solution and will try to convince your readers either that these objections are not valid or that the benefits of implementing your proposal outweigh its weaknesses.
Writing a Proposal Essay
The introduction of a proposal should identify the problem, providing sufficient background on the issue to let the audience know the problem exists, it is serious, and something must be done.
Take, for instance, the case of obesity, which David H. Freedman tackles in his essay “How to Fix the Obesity Crisis.” In this essay, he proposes a solution to the obesity epidemic in the United States. However, before he can make his proposal, he has to convince his audience that obesity is, in fact, a crisis:
Obesity is a national health crisis—that much we know. If current trends continue, it will soon surpass smoking in the U.S. as the biggest single factor in early death, reduced quality of life and added health care costs. A third of adults in the U.S. are obese, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and another third are overweight, with Americans getting fatter every year. Obesity is responsible for more than 160,000 “excess” deaths a year, according to a study in the Journal of the American Medical Association. The average obese person costs society more than $7,000 a year in lost productivity and added medical treatment, say researchers at George Washington University. Lifetime added medical costs alone for a person 70 pounds or more overweight amount to as much as $30,000, depending on race and gender.
After establishing the consequences of obesity, both in terms of life expectancy and financial impact, Freedman can now move to his proposal. In essence, he’s establishing that there is a problem and enticing his reader to want to understand and address this problem.
A proposal also calls the audience to action, providing a specific solution to the issue:
Using techniques that have proven effective in treating autism, stuttering, and alcoholism may be the most valuable for either losing weight or preventing weight gain.
Freedman proposes a specific solution to the obesity crisis. Note that he does not just say something must be done or give general advice, such as eating less and exercising more. Instead, he offers a specific solution to the overall issue.
Following the introduction of a solution, the proposal should produce evidence, such as research, articles, and studies, supporting the suggested course of action. Freedman offers specific reasons, research, and evidence to support his suggested course of action. Using research from the National Institute for Health, the Center for Disease Control, and studies published in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition as well as other journals, Freedman proves that his solution would be effective.
Writing beyond College
Proposal essays are practical tools utilized in various real-life situations to address problems and suggest actionable solutions. They are particularly useful in business contexts for project pitches and funding requests. Additionally, they play a crucial role in policy-making, helping to advocate for new policies or amendments at governmental and institutional levels.
Exercise 10.33
Individually, write five things that irritate, anger, or annoy you in your personal, work, or student life. These can be small or large issues or a combination.
In pairs, work with your partner to compare lists and identify one issue that you both find interesting. Then, describe the problem. Why is it a problem? How might it be a symptom of a larger issue in society? Who is the audience, i.e., who can solve this problem? What can they do to solve it? Why might people disagree with your solution? What are the benefits of your solution?
Exercise 10.34
Watch Why Our Screens Make Us Less Happy and then answer the questions below.
- What is the problem? What kind of evidence does he use to illustrate the problem?
- Are his solutions feasible? Could the individual enact them?
- What kind of evidence does he use to illustrate the effectiveness of his solutions?
- Does he engage the opposition? Why should you engage the opposition?
Exercise 10.35
Write a proposal essay that addresses a significant problem in your community, school, or workplace. Remember, you must identify your audience so that you may develop solutions that your audience can enact. Below are some potential topics.
- Are young people voting? If not, why not? What will get them to the polls?
- How can we combat fake news? What do people need to do or be aware of in relation to fake news? What steps can individuals take to be more critical or to spread awareness, for instance?
- People are getting their news through social media and sharing news through social media; also, people are often using one biased source for all their news. What can we do to promote more balance in our news or in our consumption of news?
- Has online shaming gotten out of control? How do we address it as individuals?
- How could we encourage students to be more active in their communities?
- Social media’s impact on our culture is undeniable. Consider taking a stand for or against one of these social media topics:
- Should young people have a social media page?
- Is Facebook misusing your information? Should people leave Facebook?
- Is the social media harming our relationships or our mental health?
Key Takeaways
- The purpose of a proposal is to identify a problem, offer a clear solution that readers can implement, discuss benefits to the solution, and address any opposing viewpoints or counterarguments.
- Evidence is provided that proves the problem exists as well as supporting the feasibility and effectiveness of the solution.
- A proposal is organized to introduce the problem, discuss solutions, offer benefits of the solutions, and finally address opposition.
Attributions
“Descriptive Writing Toolkit” by Autumn Frederick is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
“Creative and Critical Thinking” by Andrew Gurevich is licensed under CC BY 4.0
“Illustration and Exemplification” by Jenifer Kurtz is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
“Rhetorical Modes” by Andrew Gurevich is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
“Dialogue Practice Handout” by Auburn University is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
“Rhetorical Modes” by Jenifer Kurtz is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
“Process Analysis” by Jenifer Kurtz is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
“Definition” by Jenifer Kurtz is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
Tuesday Terminology: Connotation vs Denotation, by John Upchurch is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 3.0 US
Denotative vs. Connotative Meaning by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0
Teach With Movies is free to use under the website’s publication terms
Feature writing devices by Jasmine Roberts and Andrew Frank is licensed under CC BY NC 4.0
The Worry Free Writer by Dr. Karen Palmer is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License,
Evaluation by Will Rogers is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License,
Image Credits
“Fuel Your Story” Photo by Joshua Brown on Unsplash
“Five Senses” photo by Nicki Dugan Pogue from Flickr is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0
Figure 10.1 “Photo of Tree” Image by Ronald Plett from Pixabay
Figure 10.1 “Clipart of Tree” Image by Eugene from Pixabay
Woman looking at graph image by Tumisu from Pixabay
“Mobile Phone Timeline” by කේදාර KhE on Flickr is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 2.0
Father and Son Photo by August de Richelieu on Pexels
Ingredients for a Recipe Photo by Kristine Tumanyan on Unsplash
Two men drinking at a table, a dog lying at their feet], 1865–1879 by Leaman & Lee on Getty Museum is licensed under CC0 1.0
Comparing two VWs Photo by Nikola Johnny Mirkovic on Unsplash
Rating Image by Mohamed Hassan from Pixabay
