Chapter 16: Conducting Research and CAC Resources
“The experience of studenthood is the experience of being just so far over one’s head that it is both realistic and essential to work at surviving.” —Mina Shaughnessy
Research Process: From Topic Choice to Finding Sources
What is academic research?
Academic research is a thoughtful and strategic approach to seeking and evaluating information in order to solve problems, make decisions, and/or communicate effectively.
Academic research follows a strategic process. You may have some experience with research assignments from other coursework or from your job. However, research and information finding is a constantly evolving process due to the nature of how we find, evaluate, create, and share information in our mostly digital world. In this chapter, we will focus on how to develop a research strategy that you can apply to your academic, professional, and personal life.
Research as a Reiterative Process
As much as we would like research or information finding to be a “once and done” activity that always gives us an easy and straightforward answer, that just isn’t how it works. More often than not, the first “answer” you find is not always the best one (I’m looking at you, first entry listed in my Google results).
Finding quality information that is credible and represents diverse views takes time and multiple sources. Additionally, finding information related to your initial question or topic can lead to more questions which can lead to even more questions–and some dead ends — that require you to back up and redirect your research. This is a normal part of research and can actually help your understanding of an issue, question, or topic.
“Research is iterative and depends upon asking increasingly complex or new questions whose answers in turn develop additional questions or lines of inquiry in any field.”
The more information you learn about what you are researching, the more you are able to engage with the topic. You’ll learn what field-specific terminology is used to discuss the topic; “you will learn some major debates or controversies surrounding the topic.” All of this information can help you ask the right questions and lead you to sources that are credible, authoritative, evidence-based, and reflect varying viewpoints.
Key Takeaways
- Research is a process.
- The search for information takes time because you are learning along the way.
- Your research question should and will evolve as you learn more about the topic.
- You want to actively seek out multiple sources and voices that will truly allow you to shape your understanding and opinion of the topic.
- Breathe through it and enjoy the learning.
The Research Process
There are many ways to approach the research process, and your strategy will vary depending on the specific research need. However, it is helpful to understand the common steps of the research process, so you can use them to guide you regardless of what it is you are searching for. For this section’s purpose, we will focus on research strategies that relate to academic assignments or projects, although they can be applied to professional and personal research needs.
1. Start with a general question or topic of interest
Most of the time, our search for information stems from the need to answer a question, satisfy our curiosity, or solve a problem. Begin your research strategy with a general idea of what it is you want to know or find out without feeling too committed to the topic. It is important to keep an open mind and to be topic-flexible during the early stages of research, especially concerning a subject that you don’t know much about.
Need some topic ideas?
- Think about what is important to you. What issues affect your everyday life? What are you curious about? What issues do you feel strongly about?
- Browse articles from news sites online or from your social media feeds. Warning: those articles may not necessarily be appropriate sources of information for your actual research paper, but you can get an idea of what topics or issues are currently being discussed.
- Browse “Topic Guides” at the Central Arizona Library website for ideas about widely discussed and debated issues.
- Remember! You are not settling on a position, argument, or opinion of a topic yet. The first step is only to find a starting point based on what you want to know more about.
2. Pre-Research or Background Research
Background research is a crucial step in the research process as it will help you gain direction for your research. The pre-research stage is all about discovery and information gathering.
How to do background research:
- Read about your topic without worrying about exactly what your opinion is or what your argument will be. Instead, pay attention to issues that interest you.
- Look at multiple sources to get information from varied sources.
- Take note of important concepts, keywords, people, or events.
- Notice what details are sticking in your mind and interest you the most; those are elements you will want to research further and may be important parts of your essay.
You might also consider the different contexts of your topic, such as the cultural, economic, social, and political contexts in which your topic is situated. Read “Organizing Academic Research Papers: Background Information” for more information on considering different contexts in reviewing your topic’s background.
3. From Background Research to Research Question
With a more robust understanding of your topic including subtopics and issues, you can use the background research to formulate a specific research question. Having a research question will give an outline to your search strategy as you focus in on finding sources that provide evidence and support to “answer” the question.
What is the purpose of developing research questions and what are they?
If you are searching for information on a topic like immigration and you type “immigration” into your search engine, then you are going to get millions of results on a wide variety of topics, such as the history of immigration or immigrants in the 1800s. This will make it harder to find the information you need to write about your topic. By developing pointed questions, you are making your job researching a topic easier.
What is a central research question?
Every argument is essentially about the answer to one or more questions. Before you can establish your position, you need to understand what questions are being asked. In other words, what are people arguing about? To develop the central research question, put your topic into the form of a question. Ask yourself to consider what it is that people are really arguing about.
Examples
Topic: Immigration
- Immigration is a great topic, but you must consider what are the issues being debated? You can’t just say “I agree with immigration” or “I do not agree with immigration” because that has no real meaning.
- Break down the issue into questions people can agree or disagree with (or sometimes both).
- A helpful central research question for immigration might be: Should illegal immigrants be deported or given a path to citizenship?
What is a sub-question?
Once you have established your central research question, determine which questions fall under the umbrella of this question; in other words, what do you need to know in order to answer this question? These are sub-questions.
Example
- Central Research Question: Should illegal immigrants be deported or given a path to citizenship?
- Sub-Questions:
-
- Are children brought to the USA by their parents illegally actually illegal immigrants?
- Are illegal immigrants damaging or benefitting the economy?
- Do illegal immigrants pay taxes?
- Would it benefit the USA to help illegal immigrants become legal?
What makes a good research question?
- Focus on a specific issue or subtopic related to your initial background research inquiry. Notice the difference between the general topic and the focused research question below.
- Starting general topic: Universal Basic Income
- Focused research question: What are the social effects of a universal basic income?
- Open ended questions. Start your question with Why or How. Notice the difference between the general question and the focused research question below.
- General question: Do college athletes get paid?
- Focused research question: Why should college athletes be paid?
- Questions that focus on a solution to a problem. Notice the difference between the general question and the focused research question below.
- General question: Do underserved community members vote?
- Focused research question: How can we increase voter turnout within underserved communities?
Types of Research Questions
Origins: Courtroom observations helped rhetoricians see that most questions fit into a set of categories. Rhetoricians called the categories states, the plural of stasis, the Greek word for place. Stasis questions help communicators determine what is at stake in any argument and the complexity of what is at stake.
use the following categories of questions as a guide to crafting your own questions, adapting each type to your specific issue. Remember, you are crafting questions, not answering the list below.
Questions of Fact: A thing that is known or proved to be true. The truth about events as opposed to interpretation.
- What happened?
- Who was involved?
- Where did it happen?
- When did it happen?
Questions of Definition: The exact meaning of a word or term; consider denotation and connotation of the word as defined in “Description” in Chapter 10.
- What is the thing or issue under discussion? What is it made of?
- What is the expected way (in the particular context) of using the thing, word, title, or expression?
Questions of Interpretation: An explanation or way of explaining. The act of explaining, reframing, or otherwise showing your own understanding of something
- How do we understand and make sense of what happened?
- How are we to incorporate facts and definitions into a story that makes sense to us?
Questions of Consequence: The effect, result, or outcome of something occurring earlier. The result or effect of an action or condition.
- What caused what happened?
- What changes—to which persons, processes, or objects—led to the issue at hand?
- What are the effects of what happened?
- What changes might result from what happened?
Questions of Value: The regard that something is held to deserve; the importance, worth, or usefulness of something.
- Is what is at stake good, useful, withy of praise, or worthy of blame?
- What audiences will value the matter at hand?
- What do people say about the issue?
- Which of our (or our audience’s) values are called upon as we make judgments about what happened?
Questions of Policy: A rule or plan of action adopted or proposed by a government, party, business, or individual.
- Given the circumstances, what should we do?
- Given the circumstances, what rules should we make or enforce?
- Given the circumstances, what laws should we write?
For more on developing research questions, watch the video below.
Remember, your research question is NOT your thesis statement. You will use your research question to focus on finding information that will help you craft your thesis statement as well as information that can provide evidence or support for that thesis.
Exercise 16.1
Developing Research Questions
Once you have selected a general topic, you need to spend some time discovering a particular angle to argue. Without an angle, an insightful perspective will be difficult to craft; consequently, your argument will remain obvious and superficial.
In order to situate yourself insightfully, and successfully, in an argument, begin by asking a variety of questions about your chosen topic. Use the categories of questions above to guide your inquiry (research); your answer to one of these questions will form the claim, or thesis, of your writing project.
To complete this task:
- Compose six questions, one for each category. You are writing questions here, not answering them! Use the examples above as a guide, but do not feel restricted by them. You may need to ask several questions, letting one lead to another, until you come up with one that is meaningful. To be meaningful for guiding research, your questions should be specific and selective. Broad, general, and/or vague questions will not productively guide your research and writing. Write your questions in the following format:
- Question of fact:
- Question of definition:
- Question of interpretation:
- Question of consequence:
- Question of value:
- Question of policy:
- In groups, exchange questions and comment on your peers’ questions with the following:
- Identify what questions you find insightful; explain why.
- Offer an alternate question your peer may not have considered.
4. Key Concepts & Keywords
Equipped with a focused research question, you are almost ready to do a deep-dive into the literature and scholarly conversations to find evidence that will shape your thesis. Before you grab your scuba 
gear, you need to turn your research question into a database-friendly search statement. Library databases, unlike Google, do not understand when we search with a question or a long string of words. Databases give the best results when we search using specific keywords and phrases. These keywords, or search terms, come from the key concepts or main ideas of your research question.
The key concepts are the most important words or phrases of your research question. You will use these as the basis for developing a list of keywords which will then become your database search terms.
Identifying Key Concepts
In order to identify the best keywords to search with, start with the key concepts or the main idea from your research question. Take your research question and pick out the most important words or phrases that really capture the essence of your research question. Key concepts are usually nouns and may be a single word or a phrase.
Example
In this research question, what do you think are the key concepts or main ideas?
How can we increase voter turnout within underserved communities?
In this question, the two key concepts are “voter turnout” and “underserved communities.” Words like increase, benefits, causes, etc. are not considered key concepts. These words are very general and could be applied to many different topics. Focusing on the key concepts when we search will naturally find information that talks about the importance of and the relationship between the two concepts, so we don’t need to include these words as a search term.
Key concepts can also be search terms (keywords), the words we put into the search box of the database. However, since the library databases will only show you results based on the exact words you type in the search box, it is helpful to brainstorm several different search terms that will yield different search results.
In other words, if you only search using the terms “voter turnout” and “underserved communities,” the database will only show articles that use those exact phrases. Most likely there are plenty more relevant articles that use different terminology to discuss those concepts. To see those articles in the list of results, you need to try multiple searches using different keywords.
5. Identifying & Brainstorming Keywords
We don’t always know what keywords will give us the best results until we try them out in the database, but having a robust list of keywords will give you options when searching. Take some time to brainstorm before you begin searching, but also remember that you can and should add to your keywords as you find articles and learn more about the language used in the discourse around the topic. Focus on your key concepts and your background research to get started brainstorming keywords.
Consider the following when brainstorming keywords:
- Use single words or exact phrases. For example: “voter turnout” is an exact phrase.
- Think about keywords from your background research and keywords that people who write about this topic would use.
- Synonyms, as well as related terms, make great keywords.
- Keyword selection is sometimes trial and error. You may not know what keywords will get the best results until you try.
- As you research and learn more about the topic, make sure you continue to add to the keyword list.
Table 16.1 provides examples of alternative terms for each key concept.
| Key Concept 1: “voter turnout” | Key Concept 2: “underserved communities” |
| “voter suppression” | “low-income” |
| “voter registration” | “under-resourced communities” |
| election | “African Americans” |
| “polling location” | “communities of color” |
| redistricting | “black Americans” |
| “voter identification” | “underserved population” |
Notice that “voter suppression” and “voter registration” represent different aspects of the same topic. Using these different terms will pull up different articles in a database search.
Also, notice that the phrase “underserved communities” could apply to many different populations or groups.
Keywords are incredibly important to your search strategy, but we have one more step to go before we are ready for the databases.
6. Creating Search Statements
You may already have figured out that one of your keywords on its own is not enough to get you the results you need. For example, if I only search with the phrase “underserved communities,” I’ll likely get a large number of results but those results will be about many different topics most of which will be unrelated to voting. This is because the database is showing me every article and resource that includes the phrase “underserved communities.” The fix? I need to make sure that my search includes all the relevant concepts. Joining together keywords is called a Search Statement.
The Power of AND
We use AND to join keywords because that’s part of database language. Here are examples of search statements:
For a database, the word AND functions differently than it does for writing. AND is a command to the database and directs the database to include only results that have all the words or phrases connected with AND. Thus, using AND narrows the search to more relevant results.
- “voter turnout” AND “African Americans”
- “voter suppression” AND “African Americans”
- “voter registration” AND “underserved communities”
Also, quotation marks around two or more words directs the database to find those words as a phrase in the results, rather than as separate words.
Watch “Selecting and Using Keywords” for a short video on how to find and develop good keywords and search strategies.
7. Database Searching
Up to now, we’ve been focused on developing a research strategy primarily for an academic purpose, but it is important to remember that all of these strategies can be applied to other research needs as well as other resources of information (i.e. Google searching). Since we are focused on library databases, it may be helpful to note the differences between databases and Google.
Table 16.2 Differences between library databases and Google
|
|
Library Databases |
|
Mostly free access to information, but many sites do require a subscription, fees, or paywalls. |
Free access for CAC students. Access is paid through tuition and other fees. |
|
Most sites go unchecked/unverified (i.e. personal webpages, blogs, forums, social media, private organization/company sites) It is up to you to evaluate this information. |
The majority of information comes from reputable sources and publishers, however, not all information is without bias or represents all viewpoints. It is still up to you to evaluate this information. |
|
Most information is unorganized and relies upon Google rankings and algorithms to give results. |
Information is organized by subject and indexed using subject terms and other metadata. |
|
Provides some, but not very precise, search features and search options to refine results. |
Provides many search features and filters to refine results. These options do vary by database. |
8. Expanding Keyword List and Refining Topic Focus
Your database search results should give you a much more in-depth understanding of your research topic, and you can begin to establish your own thoughts and opinions based on what you learned so far. This process with help you begin developing your thesis statement. For example, through researching “How can we increase voter turnout within underserved communities?” using our Keywords and Search Statements, we would have learned that one way to increase voter turnout is through ride-sharing to polling locations. If we wanted this to be part of our thesis, we should include these new keywords in our subsequent searches. This would help us find information that discusses specifically this aspect of our general topic.
Some new search statements would now look like this:
- “ride share” AND “voter turnout” AND “underserved communities”
- transportation AND “voter turnout” AND “underserved communities”
Note: If you find that your results include information about other countries, you can add the phrase “United States” to your search statement. However, do not discount international sources or information. They could provide insight and valuable ideas.
Next Steps: Continue searching the databases, reading articles, refining keywords and search statements as needed, and keeping track of your research.
Research Tip: Use the “Ask a librarian” chat service for research assistance from a real-live librarian during their hours of operation. You can also stop by any CAC Library or call a librarian or even email any librarian. For more info, click on this link: CAC Library Information.
Key Takeaways
- Research is a reiterative process that requires engagement and inquiry.
- The process of researching follows a process with these steps:
- Start with a general question or topic of interest
- Pre-Research or Background Research
- From Background Research to Research Question
- Key Concepts & Keywords
- Identifying & Brainstorming Keywords
- Creating Search Statements
- Database Searching
- Expanding Keyword List and Refining Topic Focus
CAC Library Resources
An Introduction to the CAC Library System
Hopefully it is obvious now that the persuasiveness of your message depends a great deal on the quality of your evidence. Academic writing, in particular, puts a lot of weight in the logos (logic) and ethos (credibility) of your argument. Credible and reliable statistics, studies, experts, and facts help you build and demonstrate credibility. Students, as scholars, need to conduct academic research through the CAC Library. This section provides an overview of resources available to students on campus and virtually.
On-Site Services
CAC has five libraries across Pinal County. The most valuable resource they offer is research librarians, who are always available, in person or virtually, to help you navigate the world of academic resources and find premium sources that best fit your research needs. The college shares a catalog with the Pinal County Public Libraries, and materials can be shipped to any CAC or county public library. With your CAC student ID, you can check out books for three weeks and DVDs for ten days. To check out materials or place requests, students should visit the Library to verify CAC ID cards are properly set up as library cards in the system. This process takes less than five minutes and allows the Library to contact the user when requested materials arrive or if borrowed items are overdue.
Each Library offers free printing, Wi-Fi, and plenty of computers with Internet access and Microsoft Office programs. Additionally, there are quiet study areas with tables, couches, and chairs for relaxing and studying, and most locations also offer group study rooms for walk-in use.
Ask for Help: How to Contact the CAC Library
Academic research can prove challenging for beginners and experts. Thankfully, research librarians are there to help with your research questions. They can assist you in finding the best search terms, using academic databases, including which databases are best for a specific assignment, and creating proper citations.
Visit one of the CAC Libraries in person or contact them online using the following:
Virtual Librarian Office Hours: Access the Virtual Office through the Student Library Resources page in Blackboard.
Chat with a Librarian from the Library homepage
Email: library@centralaz.edu
Print Sources
The Library has a wealth of print resources to support you and your research. You can easily search for our print materials through our Online Catalog, accessed through the CAC website or the Library’s Blackboard page. From the Library’s homepage, scroll down and select “Search for Books, DVDs and Other Media” to enter the catalog. In Blackboard go to the Student Library Resources page under Organization and select Catalog: Books and DVDs.
Online Sources
Library databases are searchable collections of credible, college-level sources, including articles, ebooks, and streaming videos easily accessed online. Databases can cover a range of topics or be subject specific and they can be accessed 24/7. These sources provide you with academic materials required by professors such as newspaper, magazine, and scholarly articles.
Links to the databases can be found on the Library website under Access Online Databases and Articles.
It is important to remember that when you are off-campus you must access the databases through Blackboard. Databases can also be accessed in Blackboard on the Student Library Resources page under Organization by clicking Databases: Articles, eBooks, and Streaming Videos.
Why Library Databases?
Although the internet houses great resources, some websites are not appropriate for college-level research, and sometimes professors have concerns over the information that students might encounter online. Unfortunately, you can’t find everything through a Google search, which is one reason why you’d want to use a library database.
Most library databases provide access to resources that you would normally subscribe to or pay for, such as a newspaper. You can access some newspaper articles for free online, but websites often limit the amount of articles you can view freely. For example, if you visit the Los Angeles Times online you might be able to view one or two articles. After that point, you will need to purchase a subscription to read more. Access to and use of the databases is a paid service, which is covered by your tuition and fees. Only active CAC students or staff are permitted access to the CAC databases; Blackboard verifies that the student is currently enrolled and permitted to use the college resources.
Another advantage of using a library database is that the resources are secured and safe to access. Some websites require you to accept additional considerations and agreements before accessing materials. But what are you agreeing to? Websites, by their nature, are dynamic resources; their content can change without warning. A resource in a database typically will not change and will often come with a permanent link (sometimes called a “permalink”) so that you can find and share the resource in the future.
Library databases tend to come with additional tools to support your research. These tools can include help with writing citations, easy-to-use filters to limit your search results, and options to save the article for later use. Whenever you use a library database, you will want to become acquainted with these additional features that will streamline and support your research process.
Table 16.3 Library Databases vs. Websites
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|
Library Databases | Websites |
| Cost | Always free for students to access. | Varies. Sometimes you can access resources freely, other times you can’t. |
|---|---|---|
| Privacy & Security | Exposure of students’ information is limited through the databases. | You often must “agree to terms” before accessing content on a website. |
| Reliability | Information in a library database will not change unless the subscription changes. | Websites are dynamic, and content can change daily. |
| Features | Databases typically come with a range of tools to help you find relevant resources. You have more control over the results you want to see. | Search engines online have limited features to narrow down results. You have less control over the results you want to see. |
Instructional Videos
The librarians have created a number of tutorials to help you use the library. Check out the CAC YouTube Playlists for information on using the library’s resources.
Exercise 16.2
Scavenger Hunt
Directions: You will need Internet access to complete this scavenger hunt. Start by going to the CAC Library’s website.
Section 1: Get to know the Library’s website:
- What are the library hours and phone number at your campus?
- Scroll down the page, then find and open the Library Policies page. What is your library card and how can you get one?
- What is Chat with a Librarian, and how can you use this service?
- Where can you find instructional videos that will help you with your library research?
- Go to the Library catalog, type “global warming,” and record how many results you get. Next, change the “search by” field to “subject” and record how many results you get. Aside from the number of results, how did this change affect your results?
- What library databases, if any, have you used before? This can be at CAC or elsewhere.
- On the left side of the Library’s Blackboard homepage, click on “Databases: Articles, eBooks, and Streaming Videos.” Read the descriptions for each of the “Databases Most Used” then write a one-sentence summary, in your own words, explaining what these are, so someone who does not know what databases are will understand.
- View Eli Pariser’s TedTalk on “filter bubbles.” What information from this talk surprises you or do you find most important?
- From the Library’s Blackboard menu, click “Instructional Videos.” Scroll down and watch “Scholarly vs. Popular Articles.” According to the video, how do materials (articles, etc.) found in library databases like Academic OneFile differ from material found on the free, open web?
- Return to the “Databases” section and click “Databases Alphabetically.” Select and utilize one of the databases listed below to conduct preliminary research on a topic you need to research. Select one article, and identify the title, source, and author (if there is one). Then, briefly summarize the source and why you find it interesting or potentially useful.
Possible databases: Academic OneFile (Gale), OmniFile (EBSCOhost), Gale eBooks, or Newsbank. - Do a popular Internet search on the same topic you selected above and locate an article or news story. Try news sources like CNN, FoxNews, or MSNBC. Identify the title, source, and author. Then, in at least one paragraph, describe how news stories like these differ from the information and articles you found while conducting academic research through the Library databases. What is your judgment of these types of sources?
- What is the most interesting/useful thing you learned about the CAC Library?
- What is a question you still have about the CAC Library?
Key Takeaways
The CAC Library is available for your research needs.
- Check out the CAC Library’s instructional videos on YouTube
- You can access CAC Library’s resources off-campus via Blackboard. Click here for instructions.
- Print and online resources are available via CAC’s on-campus libraries and online databases.
- Follow CAC on social media:
- https://www.facebook.com/caclibrary
Types of Sources
Once you have your research question, you’ll need information sources to answer it and meet the other information needs of your research project.
This section about types of sources will increase your sophistication about them and save you time in the long run because you’ll understand the “big picture.” That big picture will be useful as you plan your own sources for a specific research project.
Typically, you will have many sources available to meet the information needs of your projects. In today’s complex information landscape, just about anything that contains information can be considered a potential source.
Here is a more detailed list of potential source types
- Books and encyclopedias
- Websites, web pages, and blogs
- Magazine, journal, and newspaper articles
- Research reports and conference papers
- Field notes and diaries
- Photographs, paintings, cartoons, and other art works
- TV and radio programs, podcasts, movies, and videos
- Illuminated manuscripts and artifacts
- Bones, minerals, and fossils
- Preserved tissues and organs
- Architectural plans and maps
- Pamphlets and government documents
- Music scores and recorded performances
- Dance notation and theater set models
With so many sources available, the question usually is not whether sources exist for your project, but rather which ones will best meet your information needs.
Being able to categorize a source helps you understand the kind of information it contains, which is a big clue to (1) whether it might meet one or more of your information needs and (2) where to look for it and similar sources.
Scholarly, Popular, and Professional Sources
We can also categorize information by the expertise of its intended audience. Considering the intended audience—how much of an expert one has to be to understand the information—can indicate whether the source has sufficient credibility and thoroughness to meet your need.
There are varying degrees of expertise:
Scholarly
Scholarly, or peer-reviewed, articles are written by professionals who are experts in their field. Peer-reviewed articles are read by other experts in the author’s field of study and checked to ensure a high standard, unlike sources found on the open web, such as results from a Google search, which could be created by anyone.
Scholarly journal articles (such as Plant Science and Education and Child Psychology) are meant for scholars, students, and the general public who want a deep understanding of a problem or issue. Researchers and scholars write these articles to present new knowledge and further understanding of their field of study.
Additionally, scholarly sources are:
- Where findings of research projects, data and analytics, and case studies usually appear first.
- Often long (usually over 10 pages) and always include footnotes and references.
- Usually published by universities, professional associations, and commercial publishers.
- Published after approval by peer review or from the journal’s editor.
Articles in scholarly journals are valued for several reasons. First, they are usually trustworthy because their publication process includes a peer review that helps ensure their accuracy and contribution to their disciplines. In addition, they often contain the first reports of new research, which makes their sections on methodology, data, analysis, and interpretation primary sources. Sometimes they instead consist of literature reviews which are summaries of multiple research studies done in the past on particular subjects of current interest. That makes those articles very helpful secondary sources.
The most-respected scholarly journals are peer-reviewed, which means that experts in their field other than the author and editor check out each article before it can be published. It’s their responsibility to help guarantee that new material is presented in the context of what is already known, that the methods the researcher used are the right ones, and that the article contributes to the field.
For those reasons, peer-reviewed articles are more likely to be credible. Peer-reviewed journal articles are the official scholarly record, which means that if it’s an important development in research, it will probably turn up in a journal article eventually.
Popular
Another type of source you can find in the library is “popular sources.” Popular newspaper and magazine articles (such as articles from The New York Times, Time, and The Washington Post) are meant for a large general audience, are generally affordable, and are easy to purchase or available for free. They are written by staff writers or reporters for the general public.
Additionally, popular sources are:
- About news, opinions, background information, and entertainment.
- More attractive than scholarly journals, with catchy titles, attractive artwork, and many advertisements but no footnotes or references.
- Published by commercial publishers.
- Published after approval from an editor.
- For information on using news articles as sources (from newspapers in print and online, broadcast news outlets, news aggregators, news databases, news feeds, social media, blogs, and citizen journalism).
Professional
Finally, there are also “professional sources.” Professional magazine articles (such as Plastic Surgical Nursing and Music Teacher) are meant for people in a particular profession and are often accessible through a professional organization. Staff writers or other professionals in the targeted field write these articles at a level and with the language to be understood by everyone in the profession.
Additionally, professional sources are:
- About trends and news from the targeted field, book reviews, and case studies.
- Often less than 10 pages, some of which may contain footnotes and references.
- Usually published by professional associations and commercial publishers.
- Published after approval from an editor.
Table 16.5 Scholarly, Professional, and Popular Sources
| Scholarly (or Academic) | Professional (or Trade) | Popular | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Purpose | These sources are intended to inform about research done by the authors. Scholarly sources represent original research or experimentation by a trained scholar in a given field. | Professional or trade sources are designed to comment on recent developments, challenges, and trends in a professional field. | Popular sources are made for a vast array of reasons; from entertainment, to marketing, to educational. |
| Authorship | Scholarly articles and books are written by scholars and researchers. These authors have significant experience and credentials backing their work. | Members of a given profession or trade are the primary authors of these sources. They contribute their lived professional experiences in their field to these sources. | The authorship of a popular source can also be quite varied. Authors may or may not even be named. |
| Sources | Sources are always cited and referred to in an academic source; acknowledging the work of past scholars is a critical component of academic integrity. | Trade articles may or may not cite their sources–this will generally depend on the given field and the individual publication. | These sources will rarely, if ever, cite their sources. |
| Review | Academic sources almost always undergo a process called peer review. In this process, other scholars comment and critique a work before its’ publication, and the author will revise based on those comments. | For the most part, trade sources are not peer reviewed. | Not peer reviewed. |
| Syntax | In these sources, the language used is academic in nature, and requires knowledge of the discipline in question. | Professional sources will use the language of their profession. They will be less specialized knowledge than an academic source, but will still require some knowledge of the profession. | Language is geared for a general audience and is understandable for most readers. |
| Example |  |
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Exercise 16.3
Instructions: Assume that each of the sources below is relevant to research being done by a university student. Examine their titles and other information carefully to judge whether each is a scholarly, popular, or professional
- A field guide to snowy owls
- February 2016 New York Times article headline “Otto Warmbier, Detained U.S. Student, Apologizes in North Korea”
- Stern’s Introductory Plant Biology (a textbook)
- Oxford Dictionary of Engineering
- “Health Functionality of Organo-sulfides: A Review” (a journal article)
- “Adolescent Cooking Abilites and Behaviors: Associations With Nutrition and Emotional Well-Being” (a journal article announcing new research findings)
- Wikipedia articles
Primary, Secondary & Tertiary Sources
Another information category is publication mode and has to do with whether the information is
- First-hand information (information in its original form, not translated or published in another form).
- Second-hand information (a restatement, analysis, or interpretation of original information).
- Third-hand information (a summary or repackaging of original information, often based on secondary information that has been published).
The three labels for information sources in this category are, respectively, primary sources, secondary sources, and tertiary sources.
Table 16.4 Examples of different sources
| Type of Source | Example |
| Primary Source
(Original, Firsthand Information) |
J.D. Salinger’s novel Catcher in the Rye. |
| Secondary Source
(Secondhand Information) |
A book review of Catcher in the Rye, even if the reviewer has a different opinion than anyone else has ever published about the book- he or she is still just reviewing the original work and all the information about the book here is secondary. |
| Tertiary Source
(Third-hand Information) |
Wikipedia page about J.D. Salinger. |
When you make distinctions between primary, secondary, and tertiary sources, you are relating the information to the context in which it was created. Understanding this relationship is an important skill that you’ll need in college, as well as in the workplace. The relationship between creation and context helps us understand the “big picture” in which information operates and helps us figure out which information we can depend on. That’s a big part of thinking critically, a major benefit of actually becoming an educated person.
Primary Sources
Because it is in its original form, the information in primary sources has reached us from its creators without going through any filter. We get it firsthand. Here are some examples that are often used as primary sources:
- Any literary work, including novels, plays, and poems.
- Breaking news.
- Diaries.
- Advertisements.
- Music and dance performances.
- Eyewitness accounts, including photographs and recorded interviews.
- Artworks.
- Data.
- Blog entries that are autobiographical.
- Scholarly blogs that provide data or are highly theoretical, even though they contain no autobiography.
- Artifacts such as tools, clothing, or other objects.
- Original documents such as tax returns, marriage licenses, and transcripts of trials.
- Websites, although many are secondary.
- Buildings.
- Correspondence, including email.
- Records of organizations and government agencies.
- Journal articles that report research for the first time (at least the parts about the new research, plus their data).
Secondary Source
These sources are translated, repackaged, restated, analyzed, or interpreted original information that is a primary source. Thus, the information comes to us secondhand, or through at least one filter. Here are some examples that are often used as secondary sources:
- All nonfiction books and magazine articles except autobiography.
- An article or website that critiques a novel, play, painting, or piece of music.
- An article or web site that synthesizes expert opinion and several eyewitness accounts for a new understanding of an event.
- The literature review portion of a journal article.
Tertiary Source
These sources further repackage the original information because they index, condense, or summarize the original.
Typically, by the time tertiary sources are developed, there have been many secondary sources prepared on their subjects, and you can think of tertiary sources as information that comes to us “third-hand.” Tertiary sources are usually publications that you are not intended to read from cover to cover but to dip in and out of for the information you need. You can think of them as a good place for background information to start your research but a bad place to end up. Here are some examples that are often used as tertiary sources:
- Almanacs.
- Dictionaries.
- Guide books, including the one you are now reading.
- Survey articles.
- Timelines.
- Bibliographies.
- Encyclopedias, including Wikipedia.
- Most textbooks.
Tertiary sources are usually not acceptable as cited sources in college research projects because they are so far from firsthand information. That’s why most professors don’t want you to use Wikipedia as a citable source: the information in Wikipedia is far from the original information. Other people have considered it, decided what they think about it, rearranged it, and summarized it–all of which is actually what your professors want you, not another author, to do with the information in your research projects.
Exercise 16.4
Instructions: Assume that each of the sources below is relevant to research being done by a university student. Examine their titles and other information carefully to judge whether each is a primary, secondary, or tertiary source.
- A field guide to snowy owls
- February 2016 New York Times article headline “Otto Warmbier, Detained U.S. Student, Apologizes in North Korea”
- Stern’s Introductory Plant Biology (a textbook)
- Oxford Dictionary of Engineering
- “Health Functionality of Organo-sulfides: A Review” (a journal article)
- “Adolescent Cooking Abilites and Behaviors: Associations With Nutrition and Emotional Well-Being” (a journal article announcing new research findings)
- Wikipedia articles
Key Takeaways
- Scholarly sources are from peer-reviewed journals. They report original research projects that have been reviewed by other experts before they are accepted for publication, so you can reasonably be assured that they contain valid information.
- Popular magazines and newspapers are good for overviews, recent news, first-person accounts, and opinions about a topic.
- Professional or trade sources are designed to comment on recent developments, challenges, and trends in a professional field.
- Primary sources allow researchers to get as close as possible to original ideas, events, and empirical research as possible.
- Secondary sources analyze, review, or summarize information in primary resources or other secondary resources.
- Tertiary sources provide overviews of topics by synthesizing information gathered from other resources. Tertiary resources often provide data in a convenient form or provide information with context by which to interpret it.
The Annotated Bibliography
What is an Annotated Bibliography?
As you develop a working thesis for your research project and begin to collect different pieces of evidence, you will soon find yourself needing some sort of system for keeping track of everything. One of the primary tools used in the world of academia is an annotated bibliography, which is a list of sources on a particular topic that includes a brief summary of what each source is about as well as a brief explanation as to how the source relates to or informs your research project. This writing exercise is a bit different from the other assignments of similar nature in that it isn’t an “essay” per se; rather, it is an ongoing writing project that you will be “building” as you discover new pieces of evidence for your research project. Consider an annotated bibliography as a tool to help you collect, keep track of, and organize your research.
Annotated bibliography entries have three parts.
1. Citation: At the top of the entry is the reference entry or works cited entry, which is the bibliographic entry that usually appears on the “Works Cited” (MLA) or “References” (APA) page in your essay.
2. Summary: The second part of the entry is the summary of the evidence being cited. A good annotated bibliography summary provides enough information in a sentence or two to help you and others understand what the research is about in a neutral and non-opinionated way.
Summaries can be challenging to write, especially when you are trying to write them about longer and more complicated sources of research.
Guidelines for Writing Summaries
- Keep your summary short. Good summaries for annotated bibliographies are not “complete” summaries; rather, they provide the highlights of the evidence in as brief and concise a manner as possible, no more than a sentence or two.
- Don’t quote from what you are summarizing. Summaries will be more useful to you and your colleagues if you write them in your own words. Instead of quoting directly what you think is the point of the piece of evidence, try to paraphrase it.
- Don’t “cut and paste” from database abstracts. Many of the periodical indexes that are available as part of your library’s computer system include abstracts of articles. Do not “cut” this abstract material and then “paste” it into your own annotated bibliography. For one thing, this is plagiarism. Second, “cutting and pasting” from the abstract defeats one of the purposes of writing summaries and creating an annotated bibliography in the first place, which is to help you understand and explain your research.
- See Chapter 1 for a more detailed discussion of summarizing.
3. Evaluation: The third part of the bibliography is the evaluation or assessment of the source and how you think it relates to or informs your research project. Note briefly how this source will be useful to you. Does it address a specific research question? Does it provide necessary background information or potential solutions to the issue you are researching? Does it inform your address of an opposing viewpoint?
Check out this video for an overview of annotated bibliographies: What is an Annotated Bibliography?
Why Write Annotated Bibliographies?
An annotated bibliography is an excellent way to keep track of the research you gather for your project. Make no mistake about it— it is extremely important that you keep track of all of your evidence for your research project, and that you keep track of it from the beginning of the process of research writing.
There’s nothing more frustrating than finding an excellent article or book chapter you are excited about incorporating into your research project, only to realize you have forgotten where you found the article or book chapter in the first place. This is extremely frustrating, and it’s easily avoided by doing something like writing an annotated bibliography.
An annotated bibliography also gives you the space to start writing and thinking a bit about how some of your research might fit into your project. In other words, in compiling an annotated bibliography, you are doing more than keeping track of your research. You are starting to make some comparisons and beginning to see some relationships between your evidence, a process that will become increasingly important as you gather more research and work your way through the different exercises that lead to the research project.
A good annotated bibliography:
- encourages you to think critically about the content of the works you are using, their place within a field of study, and their relation to your own research and ideas.
- proves you have read and understand your sources.
- establishes your work as a valid source and you as a competent researcher.
- situates your study and topic in a continuing professional conversation.
- provides a way for others to decide whether a source will be helpful to their research if they read it.
- could help interested researchers determine whether they are interested in a topic by providing background information and an idea of the kind of work going on in a field.
Revision and Review
Because of its ongoing nature, revising an annotated bibliography is a bit different than the typical revision process. Take opportunities as you compile your annotated bibliography to show your work in progress to your classmates, your instructor, and other readers you trust. If you are working collaboratively on your research projects, you will certainly want to share your annotated bibliography with classmates who are working on a similar topic. Working together like this can be a very useful way to get more ideas about where your research is going.
It is best to approach the annotated bibliography in smaller steps—five or six entries at a time. If that’s how you’re approaching this project, then you will always be in a process of revision and review with your classmates and your instructor.
Think about these questions as you revise, review, and add entries:
- Are the summaries you include brief and to the point? Do your readers understand what the cited articles are about?
- Are you following a particular style guide (MLA or APA) consistently?
- If you include a sentence or two about each of your resources, how do these sentences fit with your working thesis? Are they clarifying parts of your working thesis that were previously unclear? Are they suggesting changes to the approach you took when you began the research process?
- Based on the research you have so far, what other types of research do you think you need to find?
Key Takeaways
- An annotated bibliography can help you gather your research and identify the sources you need for your project.
- Through the process of creating an annotated bibliography, you can keep track of those sources. Imagine remembering a fact that could be helpful in writing your essay only to forget where you got it?
- Create a citation, summary, and evaluation for each source.
- The summary should be brief, concise, and only cover the main idea of the source.
- The evaluation should establish where the source fits in the project. How will it help your project goals or answer a research question?
Exercise 16.6
Research Process Narrative
Writing a reflective essay on the research process is an opportunity for you to think back on what you have learned, to recognize your achievements and to identify the challenges you faced. The essay is your opportunity to describe your research strategy, process, and what you learned from both.
Compose an essay that does the following:
- Communicates specifics about your improved understanding and use of library services, resources, and collections as they applied to your project.
- Explains what advancements you see in your library research and what skills, techniques, or strategies you have learned.
Some suggested methods for composing your Research Process Narrative. . .
You can organize your essay as you like and cover the points below as you respond to numbers 1 and 2 above. They are not intended to be answered directly but included in your response as appropriate.
- Consider the process: how you crafted your thesis, selected your search tools, developed search techniques, and chose which library collections to explore.
- How did you think about and refine your preliminary research topic? Reflect on the process of adapting your interests into the scope of the paper, and how you may have modified your topic given the time you had available for research and writing, the required length of the paper, and the nature of the information you found.
- What specific strategies did you develop for finding relevant information? Which discoveries did you make by chance and which through planned search strategies?
- What specific library search tools did you use and why?
- Consider your sources: the types and formats that you chose, how deeply or widely you explored your topic area, how you evaluated and selected materials, and how carefully you cited what you selected.
- Did you have trouble finding some types or formats of information and if so, how did you overcome this challenge?
- Did your assumptions about what information would be available change throughout the research process?
- Did you have some reasons for not selecting specific resources, even though they appeared promising?
- Pulling it all together: how you used these sources to support your thesis and what original ideas stemmed from the synthesis of your research.
- What relationships do you see between writing and research? In other words, how do they relate to each other?
- How much did the sources you used provide support for your thesis?
- How did you balance the evidence that you found?
- What you learned: how your understanding of library research changed and how you have grown as an independent researcher.
- What did you learn about your own research process and style?
- What expertise have you gained as a researcher?
- What do you still need to learn?
- What would you change about your process if you had another chance?
Exercise 16.7
WRITE A FORMAL RESEARCH PROPOSAL
Before jumping right into a major writing project, it is helpful to explore your topic to determine if it will be viable. The first stages of research and writing are about learning. You should have a general idea of what interests you. Instead of performing exhaustive research that may or may not prove useful, begin by exploring and learning about your topic, so you can join the conversation with purpose and a meaningful contribution. The beginning stages of the research process you are embarking on look like this:
First, you will need to identify a general topic.
Second, you will focus your topic and begin asking specific questions concerning your topic.
Third, you will conduct preliminary research to learn more about your topic in the context of your questions.
Fourth, you will develop a hypothesis that answers a specific question and asserts a focused argument.
Fifth, draft a formal research proposal.
- Begin by identifying some general topics. Make a list. You should have some idea of what interests you. You have a lot of freedom here. The only stipulation is that your persuasive research essay contributes to the ongoing conversation of a specific issue.
- Select a general topic and bring your topic into focus using one or more invention techniques. This can be handwritten or done on the computer. Download the “Focusing a Topic” graphic organizer below.
- Once you have a narrowed topic, begin asking specific questions concerning various aspects of the topic; these questions will guide your research and inquiry. Look for issues (something people feel strongly about, toward which they have differing opinions). Look for conflict, tension, or confusion. Come up with at least six different questions concerning your narrowed topic. The following is a general list of types of discovery questions, which are also covered earlier in this chapter.
-
- Questions of fact
-
- Questions of consequence
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- Questions of value
-
- Questions of definition
-
- Questions of interpretation
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- Questions of policy
- Conduct a preliminary search to investigate and learn more about your topic within the context of your questions. Use your questions from above to guide your research by extracting key terms and phrases for database searches.
- Draft a formal research proposal.
Key Functions of the Research Proposal:
- Introduces the narrowed topic.
- Presents the rhetorical stance or thesis you intend to develop.
- Explains the significance of your research project.
- Lists possible sources for investigation.
- Outlines your research methods or planned approach to the research.
- Delineates a detailed timeline for investigating the topic.
- Anticipates any difficulties that might arise in pursuing this topic.
Drafting the Research Proposal:
In many academic contexts, you will be asked to move beyond freewriting and formalize your research plan through composing a full-length research proposal. This type of text is common in many disciplines and professions and is used by writers to develop agendas for research communities, secure funding for a study, publicize plans for inquiry and field research, and test the interest of potential audiences for a given project. In the writing classroom, the research proposal provides a similar formal structure for developing a project, but it also serves another purpose: it is a more structured means of organizing your thoughts to help you solidify your topic and move into the next stages of the research process. Your proposal is designed to facilitate the early stages of the research process and demonstrate to your instructor that you have a viable, meaningful research project.
In drafting your proposal, include the following elements using section headings:
- Background: Thorough and detailed explanation of what you already know about the topic/issue as well as what you do not know/need to find out more about. Describe the historical context.
- Opposing Viewpoints: Detail the prominent beliefs and arguments on all sides of the issue.
- Research Questions: Develop specific, focused research questions to drive your inquiry. (Use Discovery Questions)
- Working Thesis: State your preliminary argument.
- Methods of Investigation: Describe what type of research you will engage; include the academic databases, popular sources, primary sources, and any consideration of primary research.
- Timeline: Identify the goals and stages of your project (not Proposal) and map out milestones and due dates. Consider when you will research, draft, work with a writing tutor, revise, conduct further research, revise again, etc. Consider the goals for the different stages of research and how you will schedule your work to most effectively meet these milestones. Although it may seem obvious, a detailed timeline is crucial for time management. The timeline reflects the process of writing the actual essay.
- Ultimate Goal and Significance: Describe what you hope to accomplish with your research and project. The significance extends beyond the boundaries of the essay and thesis. Explore the broader issues or implications (socially, economically, politically, etc.) of your research. Why is this important to discuss?
- Audience Analysis: Identify the specific audience to whom you will address your project. What you have to say is likely meaningful to a broad audience, but a single text cannot successfully reach “everyone.” Determine who are the game-changers involved or who would be most impacted by your argument.
- Genre/Format: Determine the most appropriate and effective way to reach your audience and serve your purpose. Is the genre popular, academic, or professional? What format will you use within that genre? In other words, what type of product will you create to reach your specific audience?
- Rhetorical Appeals: Describe the rhetorical strategies you will employ as you appeal to your audience ethically, logically, and emotionally. Employ all three.
- Outline: Identify and arrange the various components you intend to include in your discussion. Be specific, not general.
- Annotated Bibliography: This is a research tool that serves several purposes: track your research, collect bibliographic information, and provide source information (summary) along with an explanation of how it may be useful. Some you will use in your essay; some you may not. Start with more than you actually need. Format according to MLA or APA guidelines (pick one and be consistent).
As the list above suggests, it is important to explain your interest in your chosen subject and establish a set of questions to guide your inquiry. While your proposal serves to clarify your research intentions, it should also persuade an audience of the feasibility and significance of your project. In fact, perhaps the most important step in launching your research inquiry is to address the issue of your project’s significance, the “So What?” factor. It is the “So What?”—an awareness of the significance of the topic you’re addressing and the questions you’re asking—that moves the proposal from being a routine academic exercise to a powerful piece of persuasive writing. When addressing the “So What?” question, consider why anyone else would care enough to read a paper on your topic. What is at stake? Why does it matter?
Attributions
Composition 2: Research and Writing by Brittany Seay is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
From Background Question to Research Question, Amy Lagers is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
Discover Questions by Kolette Draegan
Annotated Bibliographies by The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
Introduction to College Research by Walter D. Butler. is licensed under CC-BY 4.0
Evaluation Sources by Rhode Island College Library is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0
What is Peer Review? by Utah State University Library is licensed under CC BY NC 4.0
Image Credits
Woman browsing library Photo by Becca Tapert on Unsplash
Man staring at wall Image by Pexels from Pixabay
Question marks Photo by Leeloo The First
