Editing and Proofreading
CHAPTER DESCRIPTION
- Chapter identifies techniques for editing (line and content) and proofreading
What Is Editing?
Editing is improving an essay by using various methods of revision. It can involve major and minor changes to an essay’s content, structure, or language. There are multiple stages to editing: content editing, line editing, copy editing, and proofreading.
In content editing, you can expect to make major changes to your work. Take an early draft of the essay and add or delete content as needed. Perhaps your thesis statement required revision, or you needed more substantial evidence to support your claims. Adjust your introduction, body paragraphs, and conclusion accordingly.
In line editing, you may need to rearrange words or phrases to make sure your meaning is clear. Some paragraphs may benefit from restructuring in order to create a sense of flow in the essay. Make sure each paragraph begins with a topic sentence, has supporting details to back up that topic sentence, and ends with a transitional sentence.
In copy editing, pay attention to each sentence’s grammar. Make sure there are no obvious critical errors such as sentence fragments or run-on sentences. Make sure that your tone and tense are consistent. Double-check your formatting to make sure it is styled appropriately (usually MLA, APA, or Chicago).
In proofreading, scan each sentence for misspelled words, incorrect punctuation, or stylistic inconsistencies (such as capitalization). At this point, you are combing through the essay for minor errors that may have been missed previously. This is the final stage in editing before submitting a final draft.
The Steps of Editing and Proofreading
After drafting an essay, it is time to begin editing and proofreading. Start with content editing first. Double-check the overall content and organization of the essay. The writing should be easy to follow and logically ordered. At this point, you may need to change the order of sentences or even move whole paragraphs to ensure the essay has a sense of flow. Make sure that the essay reflects your conceptual intent and responds appropriately to the writing prompt. It is a good idea to recheck the assignment guidelines and make sure that your essay has all of the required components. For example, if your instructor has asked for a five-paragraph essay with an introduction, three body paragraphs, and a conclusion, then you know you will need to add a paragraph if there are only four paragraphs in your essay. Now is also a good time to check the word count and page count of your essay. If the essay is too short or too long, then you will need to add or delete sections until it is the appropriate length. Be sure to apply any required formatting to the essay to easily see its length. Any big changes you need to make to your essay should be completed in this step of the editing process.
Once the biggest changes have been made, you can move on to line editing. In this stage of the editing process, you want to look at each paragraph individually, line by line. Check the word choice for syntactical errors. Be careful to avoid clichés. Make sure the language you use is both clear and precise and that the tone you use is appropriate for your topic. If you are writing an essay about a serious issue such as starving children, then you want to maintain a serious tone throughout the essay. It would not be a good idea to insert humor in such a topic. On the other hand, if you are writing an essay about the necessity of attending clown school, then jokes are more likely to be received well, as clowns are associated with entertainment. Now is also a good time to review the order of sentences in each paragraph. It is a good idea to make sure the paragraph has a topic sentence that clearly identifies what the paragraph will discuss and that each subsequent sentence supports that topic sentence. If you notice any sentences that veer off topic or don’t seem to make sense, then you can remove or revise them. Once the topic has been adequately discussed with supporting details, check to make sure there is a transitional sentence at the end of the paragraph. This will signal to readers that the discussion of this topic is complete while pointing readers onward to the next topic your essay will discuss.
Now that organizational issues have been addressed, it is time to begin copy editing. From here on out, your essay should not require any major changes, so it is a good idea to print the essay and mark additional edits with a pen or pencil. In this stage of the editing process, try to find any obvious grammatical errors such as sentence fragments, run-on sentences, and subjects and verbs that disagree. Double-check your spelling, punctuation, and capitalization. In formal essays, it is a good idea to avoid first-person pronouns, contractions, and colloquial language. Scan for these things as you read over your essay. Another issue that is easy to miss is changing verb tense. Make sure it is consistent. Some authors will accidentally switch back and forth between past and present tense. To avoid confusing your readers, pick a tense and stick with it, switching only when necessary (such as showing a shift in time). Likewise, if a sentence begins with a singular noun, then you should use a singular pronoun when referring to that noun, and if a sentence begins with a plural noun, then you should use a plural pronoun. A mistake students often make is to begin a sentence with a noun like “person” and then use “they” as its pronoun. “Person” implies one, whereas “they” implies more than one (unless someone specifically stated they/them are their preferred pronouns). To balance a sentence, use singular and plural nouns and pronouns consistently. One more element to address in this stage of editing is factual inconsistencies. Make sure the information you provide to readers is accurate. This step can be thought of as “fact-checking.” After all of these items have been checked, spend some time reviewing your formatting. If your instructor has requested MLA, APA, or Chicago format, then it is important to check that format’s most recent style guide.
The last step in the editing process is proofreading. The goal of proofreading is to go through the essay one last time searching for minor errors such as incorrect or missing punctuation, misspelled words, and stylistic inconsistencies (such as capitalizing words that are not proper nouns). While your computer’s grammar checker can help point out some errors, you should not rely on it to catch every potential error in your essay. You are your own best editor. However, after looking over your paper several times, your eyes can miss things. The following strategies may help you to catch errors you would have otherwise missed:
- Read the essay aloud. Sometimes your ears will hear an error even if your eyes skip over it.
- Read the essay backward, starting with the final sentence and ending with the first sentence. This will allow you to have a fresh perspective on your sentences.
- Do an initial proofread of the essay, and then physically step away from it. Give yourself some time before you read over it again to give your eyes and your mind a break.
- Have a friend or peer read over the essay to look for mistakes.
- Visit your school’s writing center to help with finishing touches on the essay.
Your Turn
Think about your most recent writing assignment. Once the essay has been drafted and revised, begin the editing and proofreading processes. Take a break between each step in the process so you can approach each step after adequate rest. Keep a log in which you record your editing steps, along with the amount of time you spend on each step, that you can share with your instructor.
Key Terms
- Content editing
- Line editing
- Copy editing
- Proofreading
Summary
Editing and proofreading are two important steps in the writing process. Major edits should be done first, but it is still important to proofread for minor errors before submitting a final draft of an essay.
Reflective Response (Optional)
Now that you have practiced editing and proofreading, what mistakes do you notice yourself making? Which mistakes were easiest to fix? Which mistakes were the most challenging to fix?
Education Methods: Banking vs. Problem-Posing[1]
Almost every student has had an unpleasant experience with an educator. Many times this happens due to the irrelevant problems posed by educators and arbitrary assignments required of the student. In his chapter from Pedagogy of the Oppressed, Paulo Freire centers his argument on the oppressive and unsuccessful banking
education method in order to show the necessity of a problem-posing method of education.
Freire begins his argument by intervening into the conversation regarding teaching methods and styles of education, specifically responding in opposition to the banking education method, a method that “mirrors the oppressive society as a whole” (73). He describes the banking method as a system of narration and depositing of information into students like “containers” or “receptacles” (72). He constructs his argument by citing examples of domination and mechanical instruction as aspects that create an assumption of dichotomy, stating that “a person is merely in the world, not with the world or with others” (75). Freire draws on the reader’s experiences with this method by providing a list of banking attitudes and practices including “the teacher chooses and enforces his choices, and the students comply” (73), thus allowing the reader to connect the subject with their lived experiences.
In response to the banking method, Freire then advocates for a problem-posing method of education comprised of an educator constantly reforming her reflections in the reflection of the students. He theorizes that education involves a constant unveiling of reality, noting that “they come to see the world not as a static reality but as a reality in process, in transformation” (83). Thus, the problem-posing method draws on discussion and collaborative communication between students and educator. As they work together, they are able to learn from one another and impact the world by looking at applicable problems and assignments, which is in direct opposition of the banking method.
While it appears that Freire’s problem-posing method is more beneficial to both the student and educator, he fails to take into account the varying learning styles of the students, as well as the teaching abilities of the educators. He states that
through the banking method, “the student records, memorizes, and repeats these phrases without perceiving what four times four really means, or realizing the true significance” (71). While this may be true for many students, some have an easier time absorbing information when it is given to them in a more mechanical fashion. The same theory applies to educators as well. Some educators may have a more difficult time communicating through the problem-posing method. Other educators may not be as willing to be a part of a more collaborative education method.
I find it difficult to agree with a universal method of education, due to the fact that a broad method doesn’t take into consideration the varying learning and communication styles of both educator and student. However, I do agree with Freire on the basis that learning and education should be a continuous process that involves the dedication of both student and educator. Students are their own champions and it takes a real effort to be an active participant in one’s own life and education. It’s too easy to sit back and do the bare minimum, or be an “automaton” (74). To constantly be open to learning and new ideas, to be a part of your own education, is harder, but extremely valuable.
As a student pursuing higher education, I find this text extremely reassuring. The current state of the world and education can seem grim at times, but after reading this I feel more confident that there are still people who feel that the current systems set in place are not creating students who can critically think and contribute to the world. Despite being written forty years ago, Freire’s radical approach to education seems to be a more humanistic style, one where students are thinking authentically, for “authentic thinking is concerned with reality” (77). Problem-posing education is one that is concerned with liberation, opposed to oppression. The banking method doesn’t allow for liberation, for “liberation is a praxis: the action and reflection of men and women upon their world in order to transform it” (79). Educational methods should prepare students to be liberators and transformers of the world, not containers to receive and store information.
Works Cited
Freire, Paulo. “Chapter 2.” Pedagogy of the Oppressed, translated by Myra Bergman Ramos, 30th Anniversary Edition, Continuum, 2009, pp. 71-86.
Teacher Takeaways “I love that this student combines multiple forms of information (paraphrases, quotes, and summaries) with their own reactions to the text. By using a combined form of summary, paraphrase, and quote, the student weaves ideas from the text together to give the reader a larger sense of the author’s ideas and claims. The student uses citations and signal phrases to remind us of the source. The student also does a good job of keeping paragraphs focused, setting up topic sentences and transitions, and introducing ideas that become important parts of their thesis. On the other hand, the reader could benefit from more explanation of some complex concepts from the text being analyzed, especially if the author assumes that the reader isn’t familiar with Freire. For example, the banking method of education is never quite clearly explained and the reader is left to derive its meaning from the context clues the student provides. A brief summary or paraphrase of this concept towards the beginning of the essay would give us a better understanding of the contexts the student is working in.”– Professor Dannemiller
Article links:
"Style" provided by Writing Commons
CONTENT DESCRIPTION
- Discuss components of style in writing.
- Explore the use of voice, sentence structure, point of view, grammar, and punctuation in writing.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=6&v=zHI1kqasDXU
Style
Although characterized as a "local concern," style is an incredibly important aspect of writing. In this section, you will learn how to craft engaging, dynamic prose and how to best communicate your information and purpose as a writer. This section includes links to information on Writing Commons.
Voice
Learn how to negotiate between formal academic writing and conversational prose by maintaining an academic tone while staying true to your own voice in Making Sure Your Voice is Present.
Sentence Structure
Reusing the same sentence pattern in your writing makes for monotonous reading. Learn to engage your readers by experimenting with different sentence patterns in Select an Appropriate Sentence Pattern. Then focus on individual sentences with the Sentence-Level Exercise.
Active Voice
Whereas writers in the sciences tend to use passive voice in research reports, writers in other fields such as the humanities emphasize the importance of active voice. Learn to revise sentences to make them active and more engaging in Use the Active Voice. Another key to crafting engaging prose is to maintain a high verb-to-noun ratio.
Point of View
Different genres call for different points of view. Most students assume that academic papers should be written in the third person, but the first person has become increasingly accepted in more formal genres. Learn when the first person is an appropriate choice and how to successfully use first-person pronouns in Use the First Person, The First Person, and Using the First Person in Academic Writing: When is It Okay? To better understand why second-person pronouns should not be used in academic writing, read Understanding Second Person Point of View: Wizard Activity.
Description
When detailing their own ideas or the ideas of other scholars, successful writers communicate information in a clear and concrete manner. Learn how to craft concrete sentences in Avoid Vagueness and how to write clear, concise sentences in Write with Clarity. When appropriate, writers include figurative language in their texts. Learn why they do this and how to successfully employ figurative language in Incorporate Figurative Language into Your Paper.
Grammar
Being able to identify and address grammatical mistakes is important because those errors can not only make your draft appear sloppy, but they can also change the meaning of your sentences and confuse your reader. Enhance your understanding of grammatical principles by reading Subject-Verb Agreement, Subject-Pronoun Agreement, and Avoid Vague Pronoun References.
Punctuation
Learn how to use proper punctuation.
Below is a summary of how to punctuate different sentence patterns and how to analyze the likely effect of different syntactical forms on readers' comprehension.
- Commas: Understand conventions for using commas and appreciate the likely effects of particular sentence lengths and patterns on reading comprehension.
- Dashes: Create emphasis and define terms by interrupting the flow of a sentence using a dash; know when the dash must be used as opposed to the comma.
- Colons: Use the colon when the first sentence anticipates the second sentence or phrase, thereby creating an emphatic tone.
- Semicolons: Use a semicolon to join two sentences or to punctuate a series or list of appositives that already include commas.
Key Terms
style
commas
dashes
colons
semicolons
Licenses and Attributions
CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL
Composing Ourselves and Our World, Provided by: the authors. License: Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0)
CC LICENSED CONTENT INCLUDED
Video: My Reviewers Video Series: In Style. By FYC at USF, published March 6, 2012. located on YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=6&v=zHI1kqasDXU
Style, Written by Joe Moxley. Writing Commons. licensed by a CC BY-NC-ND 3.0 or CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
CHAPTER DESCRIPTION
- Identify concessions and counterarguments
- Practice writing concessions and counterarguments
Concession Statement Practice
Read the following paragraphs, in order to determine when the author makes concessions to his own argument.
Which sentences offer clear concessions to the author’s own argument? There is one clear concession offered in each paragraph.
Select the highlighted part of a sentence to try and identify the correct concession.
Let's try another. Select the highlighted part of a sentence to try and identify the correct concession.
In both cases, the authors offer the concession – what an opponent of his argument would state – and then the authors counter that concession with their own point, a first step towards counter-arguing.
Concession and Counterargument Practice
Look at the following statements. In the first example, you are given the objection. The goal is to be able to structure the objection into a concession, and once you’ve done that, your next step is to reasonably counter it. You've been given an example to start. Your goal, in terms of structure, is to follow this pattern:
- [Some might argue/It seems logical to argue that] add your possible Objection and Rationale for that Objection.
- [However], add your Assertion offered as a counter-point.
Example 1:
The first example is done for you.
Possible Objection: Video games cause children to shoot people
Your Assertion: Violent media existed before video games
Concession and Counter-Argument: Some might argue that video games cause children to shoot people. After all, youth violence appears to be on the rise in today’s world. However, violent media existed before video games, and in order to blame video games, we would have to ignore the historical outrage at things like movies, comic books, rock and roll, and Dungeons and Dragons.
Example 2:
In this second scenario, you are given your assertion. This is slightly more difficult, but the goal here is to come up with a reasonable concession and then use the objection to structure a concession and the assertion to structure a reasonable counter. You've been given an example to start:
Your Assertion: Requiring students to dress professionally restricts personal freedom.
Possible Objection: A mandatory dress code would encourage post-secondary students to take their education more seriously.
Concession and Counter-Argument: Although it seems logical to argue that a mandatory dress code would encourage post-secondary students to take their education more seriously, requiring students to dress professionally restricts their personal freedom. Furthermore, post-secondary institutions like Fanshawe College are not professional workplaces, and many students learn more effectively when they dress comfortably.
