Chapter 8-Argumentation
Argumentation is a genre frequently tied to research, and most college students will be asked to write an argumentative paper at some point in their educational career. If you are wondering why this is an important skill, just keep in mind when you enter the professional world, you will be arguing all the time (even if we don’t call it this)! For example, employees frequently ask for pay increases and are asked to justify (argue) why they deserve a raise. There are many other authentic (real-world) examples of arguing. What else can you think of?
You may have heard the terms “argumentation and persuasion” used interchangeably, but they are not the same things. Argumentative writing aligns with a stance but does not rely on emotional decision-making. It includes collecting and presenting evidence and allowing the reader to make an informed decision regarding the topic. A persuasive essay, however, frequently uses examples that elicit an emotional response and is rarely based on true research.
Essentially:
Argumentation = support (research)
Persuasion = emotion
Tips for Argumentative Writing:
- Choose a topic about which there is a recognized difference of opinions.
- Difference of opinions=arguments; For example, you can’t argue that the sun is hot. Of course it is. Everyone knows this; it is literally a burning ball of fire. So, this would not be an appropriate topic for an argumentative essay because there is not a recognized difference of opinion.
- Write about a topic you know AND feel strongly about.
- It is easier to argue about something you know about and have strong feelings on.
- Take a stance (side) on the issue.
- You will either be pro (for) or con (against) your topic. In argumentative writing, you are not neutral; there is no “middle ground.” You must decide how you feel about the issue.
- Use research for your support.
- Your opinion and personal experience are valuable, but if you can “back up” or support your ideas with research, it is even better. In fact, your teacher may require you to write your essay in third person and include research only, while excluding your personal opinion.
- Write using an authoritative tone.
- There is no need to include statements like “I think” or “I believe.” Since you are the writer, we know you support the information found within the paper–it is YOUR paper after all. By using statements such as the ones mentioned, you actually remove your authority as a writer.
Counterargument
Your instructor may ask you to include a counterargument or to address the opposition in your essay. The opposition is the “other side” of the argument.
For example, if you are arguing in favor of stricter gun control laws, there are some people who disagree with you (this is what makes it an argument!). The people who disagree and think we don’t need stricter gun laws are considered the opposition.
When addressing the opposition, you will likely have to do research. Remember to give the opposition’s argument in a brief and concise manner. In other words, don’t spend too much time on the opposition! You want the main argument (yours!) to stand out and make up the bulk of your paper. Additionally, when addressing the opposition, make sure to tell why you disagree with that particular argument. This is called the refutation and is the most important part of the counterargument.
Chapter Questions:
- What is the difference between argumentative and persuasion?
- What is the most important part of the counterargument?
- T/F: The author’s argument should be about the same length as the counterargument.
- Give a real-world example of argumentation that is not mentioned in the text.
Student Examples
Negative Effects of Maintaining Military Bases Abroad
By Mingu Yoo
Korean men are obligated to serve in the military for 18 months of active duty and eight years in the reserves. If there is a war in Korea, I will be summoned home because the South Korean government will call up the reserves. The United States keeps reinforcing its powers by maintaining military bases abroad. These bases allow the United States to make quick reactions when situations occur far from their borders; they can then protect ally countries from foreign threats. However, military installation on overseas territories has been questioned. For its own benefit, the United States should consider closing overseas military bases because the maintenance cost is too high, it will damage relationships with allies, and it is not a deterrent which protects partner countries and the United States.
Maintaining foreign bases costs an enormous amount of money. “As of July 2021, the United States operated military facilities at around 750 sites beyond its national territory” (Stevenson). They are paying $10,000 to $40,000 more per person per year to station troops. The total cost of overseas bases is more than $80 billion (David Vine et al.). Who pays for the astronomical costs of the military bill? The host nations pay for some expenses, but only a part of it. The rest of the expenses are covered by United States taxes. According to current estimates from the Department of Defense, the budget for maintaining the military presence in South Korea and Japan is $4.5 billion and $5.7 billion, respectively. South Korea supports approximately $893 million, and Japan contributes approximately $1.7 billion (Flynn et al.).
Overseas military operations spoil the relationship between the United States and its friends because of unavoidable political engagement. The military-related issue engenders controversies in the host nations. In 2017, “The United States deployed THAAD missiles (Terminal High Altitude Area Defense) on a former golf course in South Korea. China has accused the U.S. of interfering in its national security policies” (Ryall). Although the purpose of THAAD is not to attack but to intercept incoming ballistic missiles, the Chinese government believes the radar that is attached to THAAD might monitor China’s territory because the geological location of Korea is close to China. This issue caused the relationship to deteriorate in the three countries. Also, environmental problems and social crimes encouraged local resentment. Environmental pollution such as contaminated drinking water and noise from the bases caused the anti-base movement in Okinawa (Tasevski et al.). Most of the United States servicemen are well-conducted, but some of them trigger diplomatic tensions. In 2011, A 21-year-old U.S. Army private was in South Korean custody after being indicted in the alleged rape of an 18-year-old girl (Glionna). All of these examples show how abroad military bases may contribute to deteriorating relationships between nations.
Keeping military bases abroad is ineffective. The United States can defend its allies without the presence of military bases. For example, the United States was able to provide Ukraine with $2.6 billion in ammunition and equipment (Baldor and LEE). Despite the lack of military involvement by the United States, Ukraine has fought valiantly against Russia. Also, the presence of the bases cannot protect the United States mainland. Several nations already have nuclear weapons and North Korea continues to conduct experiments with international ballistic missiles (ICBM) with the purpose of targeting the mainland of the United States. Military bases in South Korea are meaningless once North Korea launches a nuclear missile at Los Angeles, New York, or Washington D.C.
However, some people believe that deploying the military in foreign countries is necessary. Chinese growing soft power and ideology threat America’s liberal imperium (Weyand 397). Although the effect of defense spending is invisible, it protects all U.S. citizens. CBO (Congressional Budget Office) claimed that “All households benefit from the public good of peace and security generated by defense spending and many other elements of national power” (“Reduce the Department of Defense’s Annual Budget”). The presence of overseas military bases allows the United States to operate its armed forces around the globe. “The United States presence in a number of potentially unstable regions, a variety of combat aircraft can quickly deploy to areas at risk, and Army airborne and some other units are configured to deploy quickly” (Lostumbo et al.). Despite all of these supposed benefits, the negative side of military bases outweigh the positives.
The United States military bases around the world have brought negative effects. The excessive amount of taxes has been used not for the United States citizens, but for the security of its sister countries. Unnecessary political involvement and social problems damage international relations. The United States can keep and support its friendly nations in other ways without the presence of military bases. Above all, it is ineffective in protecting the United States mainland. Therefore, the United States should reconsider the deployment of U.S. troops abroad for its own interest.
Works Cited
Baldor, Lolita C., and MATTHEW LEE. “Us Is Providing Ukraine with $2.6 Billion in Military Aid.” AP NEWS, Associated Press, 4 Apr. 2023, https://apnews.com/article/ukraine-russia-war-security-aid-billions-e02b957dc15fcb1004bf54a2232c1f5e.
David Vine, et al. “Drawdown: Improving U.S. and Global Security through Military Base Closures Abroad.” Quincy Institute for Responsible Statecraft, 1 Oct. 2021, https://quincyinst.org/report/drawdown-improving-u-s-and-global-security-through-military-base-closures-abroad/.
Flynn, Michael E., et al. “Why Does the US Pay so Much for the Defense of Its Allies? 5 Questions Answered.” The Conversation, 7 Feb. 2023, https://theconversation.com/why-does-the-us-pay-so-much-for-the-defense-of-its-allies-5-questions-answered-127683.
Glionna, John M. “Alleged Rapes by U.S. Soldiers Ratchet up Anger in South Korea.” Los Angeles Times, Los Angeles Times, 20 Oct. 2011, https://www.latimes.com/archives/blogs/world-now/story/2011-10-20/alleged-rapes-by-u-s-soldiers-ratchet-up-anger-in-south-korea.
Lostumbo, Michael, et al. “Overseas Basing of U.S. Military Forces: An Assessment of … – Rand.” Overseas Basing of U.S. Military Forces, NATIONAL DEFENSE RESEARCH INSTITUTE, https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/research_reports/RR200/RR201/RAND_RR201.sum.pdf.
“Reduce the Department of Defense’s Annual Budget.” Edited by CBO, Congressional Budget Office, 7 Dec. 2022, https://www.cbo.gov/budget-options/58632.
Ryall, Julian. “South Korea Faces Pressure from China on THAAD – DW – 08/25/2022.” Dw.com, Deutsche Welle, 26 Aug. 2022, https://www.dw.com/en/south-korea-confronts-chinese-pressure-over-anti-missile-weapons-system/a-62921470#:~:text=Deployed%20on%20the%20grounds%20of,of%20the%20best%20defenses%20available.
Stevenson, Jonathan. “Overseas Bases and US Strategic Posture.” IISS, 28 Sept. 2022, https://www.iiss.org/online-analysis/online-analysis//2022/09/overseas-bases-and-us-strategicposture#:~:text=Since%20the%20United%20States%20became,power%20and%20exert%20political%20influence.
Tasevski, Olivia, et al. “Okinawa’s Vocal Anti-US Military Base Movement.” Home, 24 Nov. 2017, https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/okinawa-s-vocal-anti-us-military-base-movement.
Weyand, Matt. “Department of Defense, Inc.: The DoD’s Use of Corporate Strategies to Manage U.S. Overseas Military Bases.” Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies, vol. 19, no. 1, Jan. 2012, p. 397. EBSCOhost, https://www.ebsco.com/find-my-organization?returnUrl=https%3a%2f%2fsearch.ebscohost.com%2fwebauth%2fLogin.aspx%3fdirect%3dtrue%26db%3dedsgao%26AN%3dedsgcl.296952450%26site%3deds-live%26sco
Why Cigarettes Should Be Illegal
By Sofia Sancci
Many people start smoking at a very young age. Some out of curiosity or for a challenge with friends and others because they imitate their families. What these people may not know is the risk that a cigarette represents. Have you ever wondered why something so harmful to health is legal and you can get it easily? According to the World Health Organization, eight million people die yearly from tobacco use. People should be aware of how severe all kinds of addictions are, especially those that are legal and readily available, such as cigarettes. Cigarettes should be illegal as they are terrible for people’s health, they are costly, and they are bad for the environment.
One of the most important reasons that cigarettes should be illegal is they are harmful to people’s health. They cause many diseases such as lung cancer, heart disease, stroke, aortic aneurysm, oropharyngeal cancer, esophageal cancer, cataracts, type 2 diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, sudden infant death syndrome, erectile dysfunction, among others (“12 Diseases”). Smokers are not the only ones affected. People who inhale the cigarette smoke of others can have consequences on their health, the so-called passive smokers. The American Lung Association argued that “Secondhand smoke contains hundreds of chemicals known to be toxic or carcinogenic, including formaldehyde, benzene, vinyl chloride, arsenic ammonia, and hydrogen cyanide.” According to a report by the Institute of Medicine, smoking can cause heart attacks; even relatively brief exposures can trigger a heart attack. In addition, exposure contributes to “…approximately 41,000 deaths among nonsmoking adults and 400 deaths in infants yearly” (“Smoking and Physical Activity”).
The risk of smoking is not only bad for one’s health, but it is also costly. From personal experience, my former smoking habit was expensive and affected my budget. My salary was quite low when I smoked. I earned 1,000 pesos a day (the equivalent today of 2.50 dollars, which, in my country, is a lot of money) and spent 450 pesos on a pack of cigarettes (1 dollar). This was almost 50 percent of my daily salary. Since I did not have much money to spare, I would often rather smoke a cigarette than spend money eating. I weighed 50kg (110 lbs.) because of it. Many smokers hold the same mentality that I had. There are people whose addiction leads them to buy multiple packs of cigarettes a day. According to the Wise Voter page, the average pack of cigarettes costs in the United States in 2020 is $6.71. If a person smokes three packs of cigarettes a day, they will spend $20.13 per day on the habit. The yearly cost would be $7,347.45. That is expensive.
A third reason that cigarettes should be illegal is that the environment receives significant collateral damage because of smoking. Every year 4.5 trillion cigarette butts are discarded, ending up scattered in different places such as forests, oceans, lakes, and the ground. Although they are biodegradable due to their cellulose component, they take two years to disappear. The tobacco industry cuts down 600 million trees annually, causing significant deforestation which releases tons of carbon dioxide that pollutes the air (“Environmental Impact”).
There are people, however, who believe smoking should remain legal. People who are addicted to tobacco believe smoking is not a risk. Since it is legal and acceptable in society, they do not see it as a danger. Many believe it is a good tool to calm nerves, anxiety, or depression. Smokers do not view cigarettes as a drug, so they think keeping them legal is fine. Since the use of cigarettes is something from many years ago, it has been normalized. Many people feel that to take cigarettes away would be to take away a freedom. The article “Arguments for and Against Banning Smoking in Public Places” shows the opinions of people in Europe against illegal smoking in public places. According to the article, making cigarettes illegal will deny people freedom of expression and choice. Additionally, many people believe it would be bad for business because people would stop going to places where smoking is not allowed. Despite the fact that cigarette smoking has been normalized over the years, the health and environmental risks are too severe to continue to permit the legalization of cigarettes.
After reviewing the risks of cigarettes, it is clear they should be illegal. Drugs are banned, and cigarettes should be as well. Since people know the risks of cigarettes to themselves and others, it is important for smokers to be considerate of those around them. If individuals want to take care of the people they love and keep their own bodies free from the effects of tobacco, use their money wisely, and take care of the planet they live on, smoking should be illegal.
Works Cited Page
“Arguments For and Against Banning Smoking in Public Places.” Debating Europe, https://www.debatingeurope.eu/focus/arguments-for-and-against-banning-smoking-in-public-places/#.ZDVa4i-B1ao.
“Cigarette Prices by State.” Wise Voter, 05 April 2023, https://wisevoter.com/state-rankings/cigarette-prices-by-state/.
“Environmental Impact of Smoking and Tobacco uses.” Tobacco Free Life, 16 June 2016, https://tobaccofreelife.org/why-quit-smoking/smoking-effects/smoking-environmental-risks/.
“12 Diseases Caused by Smoking: Infographic.” UnityPoint Health, https://www.unitypoint.org/news-and-articles/12-diseases-caused-by-smoking-infographic.
“Health Effects.” Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 28 April 2020, https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/basic_information/health_effects/index.htm.
“Health Effects of Secondhand Smoke.” American Lung Association, https://www.lung.org/quit-smoking/smoking-facts/health-effects/secondhand-smoke.
“Smoking and Physical Activity.” Cleveland Clinic, https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/10643-smoking-and-physical-activity,