Rhetoric began when people not only realized the semantics (meaning) derived from symbols, but also the capacity for being able to reach goals and accomplishments from arranging their words in a particular way. Though it is unknown when rhetoric truly originated in terms of obtaining goals, its presentation through cultural traditions can be traced back to certain historical accounts.

The history of rhetoric marks its origins in Western cultures similar to most other histories, arts, and disciplines: in societies that were highly resourceful in thought – the Greek city-states stemming from the eight through the third centuries B.C. However, being able to tell rhetoric’s origins or ideas regarding discourse that turned into the Greek analysis of rhetoric is much too hard of a task to tackle. Richard Leo Enos claims that speculations regarding language’s capacity were already up for debate in Homer’s writings in the ninth century B.C. Within these writings are three functions of language: 1) heuristic 2) eristic 3) protreptic.

The heuristic function of discourse is that of revelation be it from uncovered truths or information, enlightenment, or even self-consciousness. It is important for the process of being inventive or the ability to discover the ability to elaborately communicate our thoughts and emotions to the other people around us.

The eristic function of discourse points us to language’s capacity itself. It expresses the power or ability of discourse to explain, interest, debate, or even cause harm.

The protreptic function of discourse expresses the ability of words to change a person’s thinking patterns meaning language can persuade or convince others to reason or act in accordance to what the speaker wants. In turn, it can also dissuade people in the same way.

These three functions of language – heuristic, eristic, and protreptic – were realized many hundreds of years before they became the foundation of the analysis or education of rhetoric.

Rhetoric’s Prominence in Greece

The analysis of rhetoric or oratory most likely started in Syracuse on the island of Sicily close to 467 B.C when Hieron, a tyrant there, had passed away. Many families began to have serious arguments regarding who was owed land that the tyrant had taken over. Corax, a practitioner of rhetoric, offered classes in judicial pleading to citizens attempting to make their claims in the local courtrooms. Corax directed Syracuse to democratic reforms as well. But his methods of teaching oratory were adapted by others and eventually it was brought to Athens  and other Greek city-states by the famous Sophists, or the professional teachers and practitioners of rhetoric. These Sophists flocked to Athens in particular due to the many wealthy individuals who lived there and thirsted for knowledge, status, and power and were therefore willing to pay a high price for it. Intellectuals such as “Protagoras of Abdera, Hippias of Elis, Gorgias of Leontini, and Prodicus of Iulis poured” came to Athens in droves from different regions of Greece in pursuit of publicity and riches. This concept is similar to talented individuals in the arts who all go to Los Angeles, Hollywood, or New York to pursue their dreams in the music or film industry. People know these cities to be the places to be for people who have services to offer and readily available jobs to audition for.

The popularity that surrounded rhetoric came from the major shift that impacted several Greek city-states but especially Athens in the fifth and sixth centuries. This shift was a huge cultural transition from aristocracy to democracy. Political changes were implemented which “created the need for a new kind of education, an education consistent with the new politics of limited democracy.” This resulted in a social dynamic where the middle class could gain more power given that “family name, class origin, or property size,” did not decide who could or couldn’t have a place in the courts or assemblies. Families who had wealth inherited for centuries could always pay money to train for leadership positions within politics but the new system of democracy promised a wider umbrella of individuals to be in powerful positions despite their family trees, jobs, and socioeconomic statuses.

The polis, the independent city-state or “city” was the center of Greek life in which citizens could live out their civic duties and showcase their intelligence in public. Due to the transition to democracy, public speaking and debate became an integral part of Greek society. Therefore, training was sought out by the masses to conform to these new standards.

The Sophists provided these well sought out tutoring services in rhetoric to anyone that showed interest both intellectually and financially.

Athens Trials

Before there were lawyers, citizens who resided in Athens had to speak on their own behalf. A trial was comprised of two speeches known as the prosecution and the defense. The jury which was made up of several hundred citizens simply heard the speeches and then voted, without talking it over. Evidence was presented to the court before the trial, the length of the speeches depended on how serious the case was considered to be, and the judges were seen as leaders who kept the time, but not necessarily experts of judicial matters.

Around 430 B.C. speechwriters were often hired at great costs to write speeches that were delivered in court. For example, Antiphon, a Sophist, charged citizens for his own speech-writing services. Unfortunately, more attention was paid to the speeches that were persuasive than to the interpretation of relevant case points in accordance with the laws. After two speeches were given, a final vote was given and the most votes won the case for the most convincing speech.

Sophists in Greece

Who were the Sophists? The Sophists were a distinct group of public speakers, teachers, and writers who developed rhetoric as an academic discipline concerned with words and argumentation. The Sophists charged large fees for writing speeches, teaching classes, and or speaking for entertainment or political purposes such as for judicial or legislative bodies. The Sophists were known for their unique displays of flashy language, ways of dress, and even their animated personas. They were rich and well known in Greece and yet highly criticized by a select few. Many celebrities today most likely compare to how the Sophists were perceived in Greece. As they guest star on podcasts and talk shows, or simply speak on their own platforms, they use rhetoric to persuade others to think like themselves. Many have radical views and in addition dress or speak in ways that are not typical to the average person. As a result, many people criticize them for stepping away from traditional values. On the contrary, many other people may praise them or see them as wise or intelligent because of their way with words, winning over their thoughts and beliefs. The Sophists were relevant from the middle of the fifth century B.C. to the end of the fourth century. Famous Sophists were Gorgias, Protagoras, Polus, Hippias, and Theodoras.

Teachings of the Sophists

The Sophists were teachers and practitioners of rhetoric or the “art of verbal persuasion” (Herrick, page 36 the History and Theory of Rhetoric, 3rd edition). Not only that but many claimed to teach arete which was known as “virtue, personal excellence, and the ability to manage one’s personal affairs in an intelligent manner so as to succeed in public life” (Herrick, page 36 of the History and Theory of Rhetoric, 3rd edition). Though many young people at the time were sure of their investments in rhetorical education from the Sophists, many Greek citizens did not buy into what they claimed to offer. At the time, many believed that virtue and excellence could not be bought but were inherited by birth or by being raised with those values. Many Greeks also thought that what they claimed to be able to do was dangerous and deceptive. For example, the Sophists claimed to teach control over other people through words or persuasive speech. They believed that this skill was useful pertaining to political matters such as lawmaking and in determining judicial cases. They used dialectic in their lessons or the art of “inventing arguments for and against a proposition” (Herrick, page 36 of The History and Theory of Rhetoric, 3rd edition) which allowed individuals to debate every side of a case or topic. The Sophists loved to experiment with challenging arguments, picking apart common beliefs, and would make vast claims that they could make the weakest cases believable with their rhetoric.

Students of the Sophists were often obligated to memorize speeches, deeply study cases and arguments, argue or defend points on the fly, and speak with poise and preciseness. In addition, they had to come up with their own speeches. But many Greeks strongly suspected that the Sophists were deceiving and didn’t trust their speeches to be representative of justice or truth. They felt instead that they were deceiving the masses, especially the youth and that they were committing fraud with their speeches. Many people felt threatened due to the Sophist’s unconventional ways, going against the traditions at the time as they preached and questioned society’s values, worldviews, and belief systems.