Overview

Rhetoric is losing its negative connotation and it is not only about persuasion. There are definitions, settings where it is used, proofs, and arguments to characterize rhetoric as an art. Unlike when this topic was introduced back in high school, the teacher did not provide much context about what rhetoric is or what it does besides the basics (Ethos, Pathos, Logos), but it is much more than that.

Aristotle embraced Plato’s attitudes about the topic and most of his theory is based as a response to Plato’s criticism of the sophists’ works. Aristotle tried to improve the teachings that were circulating in Athens and cleared up the argument about rhetoric not being a techne. He divided rhetoric into three sections where he discussed the types of oratory, the rhetorical proofs, and lastly style and arrangement. Even though it may not seem like it, his analysis about rhetorical theories are still being used in our modern day in our public and private discourse.

Dialectic and Rhetoric

To better understand how rhetoric is more than just a counterpart of dialectic, Aristotle provided the similarities and differences between them. Both dialectic and rhetoric start with endoxa and answer questions that concern everyone. They also can be used on any side of the argument and can resolve issues that are not being discussed in other arts or sciences.

However, rhetoric can only be used when the speaker is defending their own idea in front of a large audience using only character and emotions to persuade them about a specific issue. For example, Kathy is explaining to her class why cats are better than dogs. 

Meanwhile, dialectic is used when an experienced speaker is testing an argument with their knowledgeable audience using logical reasoning to defend their argument. For example, A veterinarian is discussing with her colleagues whether or not it is better to have a pet while living in an apartment. 

Rhetoric as a Technē of Discovery

A techne has to address issues that other arts have not done. Rhetoric is a techne because it addresses the means of persuasion, even if this art does not accomplish its goal. For example: if a famous writer gives a person advice about writing, this does not mean that this person is going to follow that advice, it could be irrelevant to them or not really useful. The same thing happens with rhetoric, it is an art that uses investigations and expression to where the speaker has to face an audience that may not be knowledgeable about the subject and get as close as possible to successfully persuade them.

Why Is Rhetoric Useful?

1. Rhetoric can be useful because it is related to the truth. He writes, “Things that are true and things that just have a natural tendency to prevail over their opposites” (1355a). All true things are clear in our world and have a reasoning behind them.
2. It can be adapted to the audience. In some instances when it is difficult to persuade the audience, rhetoric can be modified to be relatable to “ others’ experiences, values, and beliefs” (87), this way the speaker can make connections with the audience to overcome the belief that they already know.
3. It can be used to argue either side of the argument. The speaker can see the arguments of both sides and can think about the cons and pros of the issue and have a comeback for the opponent.
4. Self-defense. As an audience members, people should also be aware of the intention of the speaker. It allows people to think critically about the issues that are happening in the polis.

The Enthymeme

Rhetoric is an “inductive argument that moves from a particular instance or a small number of instances to a probable generalization” (88), or also known as the enthymeme argument.

Rhetoric is an argument created with the audience. It is based on arguments and beliefs shared by both the speaker and the audience. As a result, the enthymeme was a “heartfelt” argument where the audience could tell from the speaker’s words and delivery that he or she was strongly dedicated to the argument being made.

Another characteristic of the enthymeme is its use during debates in a democratic society. Successful rhetoric will solve problems because it involves a serious awareness of public values, this way the public can exchange ideas freely. By its very character, effective rhetoric is a social or democratic way of problem-solving.

Three Rhetorical Settings

Oratory is divided into three settings or places where speeches occur.

1. Deliberative oratory: present in the settings responsible for laws for decision-making. This speech is centered on the benefit of the public. For example, Martin Luther King’s speech “I Have a Dream” is a call to action to eliminate economic and job disparities due to discrimination. Eventually, this speech pressured Congress to pass the Civil Rights Acts, benefiting those who needed it the most. 
2. Epideictic oratory: ceremonial speech where the speaker is praising or blaming an individual. For instance, a valedictorian student during the graduation ceremony will recognize and celebrate the achievements of their class. 
3. Forensic Oratory: reasons the circumstantial evidence to determine if something that happened was wrong or right based on the speaker’s beliefs, usually in a courtroom. The witches of Salem’s trial is a case where the speaker accused women of a crime, when they were innocent, based on their beliefs. 

“Each of the artistic proofs—logos, pathos, and ethos—might be employed in any of the three rhetorical settings” (96)

Lines of Argument

Lines of argument or proofs are used more often in one place than in others. There are two types of arguments:

1. Special Topics:

• Deliberative oratory: details are needed to prove if an action is useful, convenient, or wise or if they weren’t so the speaker can argue and prove their point. How can the Human Rights Act be beneficial for the people? 
• Epideictic oratory: details are needed to prove if something or someone is worth praise or blame for something. People agree to congratulate a person that saves a child from a fire.
• Judicial oratory: details are needed to determine the choices of an individual to commit a crime or their desires; this way the speaker can argue about what is best for the polis. A judge sentenced a man to prison because the evidence proves that he was aware of his actions when killing a man.

2. Common Topics: traditional arguments used regardless of the setting.

• Circumstances where persuasion needs to be placed.
• Deductive reasoning based on possibilities.
• Comparing correlative ideas to determine cause and effect.

Delivery, Style, Arrangement

While Aristotle believes that the topic of delivery is not worth studying, it has to be done because it is a component of rhetoric. He acknowledges that the way a speech is delivered can affect how an audience perceives it. The way something is said influences how understandable it is. However, he believes that dramatic ability is an innate talent, and can be difficult to teach truly great delivery. Therefore, a teacher is needed to assist with delivery, but this is hardly the correct way to learn a techne. The aesthetics of the arguments play an important role, devices like metaphors make a speech unforgettable.

Speeches need to be properly designed according to the situation. How the speaker delivers their message, the style of speech that is being used, and the arrangement of their words are part of a good speech to ensure that the audience understands and can be persuaded.

Conclusion

Persuasion can be used in any setting. The art of rhetoric helps the orator not only set up their speech but to ensure that the audience understands their point of view and why they are defending their opinion. Aristotle taught us how this art can accomplish many things like: when we have to defend our opinions, when we have to explain a concept to someone so they can understand, look at the pros and cons of an argument and much more. Rhetoric can go unnoticed but it is all around us, and we should be able to use his teaching for our own good and the benefit of our society.