Summary

The subject and study of rhetoric, like many of others, was created by the Greeks and then eventually adopted and refined by the Romans. Rhetoric was a way of gaining personal power, especially in politics. In Rome, rhetoric played a role in debate, trials, and addressing important matters to the citizens. The art helped shape speaking skills in people so they could differentiate themselves as refined, accomplished, and wise. Rhetoric allowed for discourse between the upper and lower classes of society so as to come to agreements in inequitable scenarios. During Roman times, one must have been skilled in rhetoric to gain prominence of any sort in their society. A man named Cicero is largely considered the greatest speaker and rhetorical theorist in all of Rome’s history. Furthermore, the Roman man Quintilian was considered one of Rome’s most successful teachers of rhetoric who developed extensive processes on how to teach it. These methods were so successful that they were used amongst Europeans for teaching rhetoric all the way up until the American Revolution.

Rhetoric, Power, and Education

Rome existed in several forms, and in this chapter Rome or the Roman world is referring to a period of 700 years lasting from 300 BCE to 400 CE where much of the time the city of Rome in the Italian peninsula was the cultural and political center that dominated the Mediterranean. There is a significant distinction between the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire that followed, the former being a limited democracy and the latter a dictatorship under a single ruler. 

The Roman Republic

In the beginning of the Roman Republic, the only people who could vote were those who owned land or with high status roles like the military. As the Roman Republic grew and incorporated people with diverse cultures and languages, the need for communication and therefore rhetoric played an important gubernatorial role in maintaining peace and stability.

Rome was a patriarchal society that was ruled by men who belonged to families or gens. These were exclusive generational families who controlled and maintained power, making it difficult for an outsider to break into political life. The Romans believed character to be of utmost importance, believing it was tied to heritability, meaning it ran in the family. Roman leaders and rhetorical orators didn’t stress much on the opinion of individuals but rather the reactions of the citizenry as a whole, the res publica.

Politics and Education

Inequality was the standard in Rome, wealthy individuals ruled the courts and only politicians gave public speeches but these politicians were at least expected to address the gathering of crowds. The speakers would often seek approval from the audience and see how they can align themselves with the public. Despite all of the inequality, Romans held the law to such a high regard that it was in a way an equalizing force in so far as that even the most powerful and wealthy individuals would not be exonerated from it. The main governing body was the Senate or senatus, which means council of elders, which the Romans believed to possess political wisdom.

Education was mainly taught by means of oral communication, therefore memory was of crucial importance. Those privileged enough to be educated were immersed in Greek culture and theories. Rhetoric in Rome taught students to be adequate debaters and spoke-peoples. Romans also understood the aesthetics of language and how sounds and dictation affect the emotion or tone of a speech.

Cicero

A politician and lawyer, there is no Roman more well known from ancient sources than Cicero due to the amount of speeches and letters that survive today. Being one of the best speakers of his day, he understood Roman audiences more than anyone. De Inventione and Rhetorica ad Herennium were popular works he created during this time. These works were seen as subversive by the upper classes because it emphasized teaching in Latin as opposed to Greek. Cicero saw rhetoric as a civilizing force that would steer us away from our more primal or naturally violent instincts.

Theories of Rhetoric

Cicero thought the formula for effective rhetoric was using invention, arrangement, expression, memory, and delivery. Invention is discovering or coming up with a valid and sound argument. Arrangement is making sure that the arguments are in proper order to be presented. Expression is being convincing through a way of presentation. Memory is being able to remember a speech. Delivery is the style of the speech you are giving.

Cicero focused mainly on judicial arguments in courtrooms. A point of disagreement between two parties is considered stasis, and Cicero outlines points of stasis in arguments. First being issues of fact, or disagreements over what events occurred. Second was issues of definition which are questions over how to define certain terms. Third is the issue of quality or discussion over the severity of something. Last is issues of procedure, or if there was foul play in the process of the court such as bias or bribery.

Cicero understood the fact that the public was of great importance and needed to be addressed in a specific way. Rhetoric has to reflect the values of the public while holding their attention as a sort of entertainment in a speech. Cicero believed that a great orator should be knowledgeable in law, politics, domestic and foreign economics, military affairs, and international issues.

They should also strive to have a distinct speaking style, and incorporate emotions that not only the audience feels but also so does the speaker. An orators job is to teach (docere), to delight (delectare), and to persuade (movere) according to Cicero. Humor should be used in good nature but not to diminish the dignity of the speech. It is good to use amusement to win over a crowd but you don’t want to appear unserious as well, an act of balance according to Cicero.

Quintilian

Quintilian was known for the works premier guide of wayward youth and glory of the Roman toga. Quintilian’s definition of rhetoric was that it was the art of vir bonus dicendi peritus, which means the good citizen skilled in speaking. Simply convincing a crowd of something was not adequate as rhetoric should also aim to benefit Roman society. There were two types of questions according to Quintillian, that being an indefinite and definite question. An indefinite question doesn’t have a specific time, place, or thing and is speculative. Definite questions concern specific individuals, facts, and places in order to find a specific answer.

Quintilian also talked about the bases which were the issues presented in a judicial case. According to Quintilian, he found that proofs derive from four sources. First was sense perceptions or eyewitnesses who saw and or heard an event. The second was testimony or general agreement of what occurred. Third is the laws and common agreements amongst a society and how we agree to assess a situation. The fourth proof is what the parties in dispute have both admitted in a case.

Quintilian taught his students how to structure a speech in ordered steps. First, exordium is an introduction to the speech to set the tone and prepare the audience. The second part, the narratio, is a statement of fact to understand the case. The third part of the judicial speech was the proof or confirmatio, which was evidence in support of the statements given previously. Fourth was the confutatio, or the refutation, which was counter-arguments that were made against the case. Finally the peroratio or conclusion was presented, the orator presents the case once again to maximize its legitimacy.

Roman Rhetoric

On the Sublime is a Roman rhetorical treatise that revolves around a concept called “the sublime”, which is the combination of the emotional power of language and also sound reason for good argumentation. Emotional speeches are important but shouldn’t go too far. Although it is important to be impassioned one must also be collected and sober minded enough to retain their dignity. There was a connection between writing and speech in the ancient world that since written work was always read aloud and the idea of silent reading was pretty much unknown to the Romans. Use of examples and figures of speech could help animate the orators’ rhetoric.

According to the Romans, a true rhetorician will not trick an audience for the sake of doing so, as that is what sophists do. To be a proper student of rhetoric the learner must  presuppose that there is power in writing, speech, and rhetoric. As the power of Rome consolidated more and more into the hands of the emperor, the prominence of rhetoric diminished. Rhetoric still played a role in training administrators across the empire. During the later days of the empire, what was called the second Sophistic emerged, especially in the eastern provinces, where rhetoric became a means of entertainment for those skilled in the art. As democracy decreased in Rome so did its use of rhetoric outside of administrative power and entertainment, showing the intrinsic connection between democracy and rhetoric.