4 The Value of Play

Authored by Jennifer Karshna, Reviewed by Holly Lanoue, Edited by Jean Doolittle Barresi

Image 7.1 by Mi Phan: Upsplash is licensed under CC by 1.0

Terminology found throughout this chapter:

Intrinsic: within a person

Extrinsic: outside of a person

Receptive language: understanding what is being said

Expressive language: talking and communicating in a way that others understand the intended meaning

4.1 Introduction

Play is a central aspect of early childhood education, serving as a crucial vehicle for children’s learning, development, and well-being. Although play is a common and universal experience, it is a complex concept that can be difficult to define and describe. In this chapter, we will explore the nature of play, its key characteristics, and its significance in the lives of young children.

We will explore the following main types of play:

1. Sensorimotor play
2. Exploratory play
3. Constructive play
4. Dramatic and socio-dramatic play
5. Physical play
6. Outdoor and nature play

By gaining a deeper understanding of these types of play and their contributions to child development, early childhood educators can create play-friendly environments and experiences that support children’s holistic growth and learning.

4.2 What is Play?

Play is a dynamic, creative, and fluid process that involves children’s active engagement with their environment, materials, and others. It is characterized by choice, wonder, and delight (Mardell, 2019), as children freely explore, experiment, and create based on their own interests, knowledge, and experiences. Play is a personal and intrinsic experience, driven by children’s internal motivations and desires. Play is also extrinsic—outside of and external to a person and observable.

Play is a vital component of developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) in early childhood education (NAEYC, 2020). It supports children’s development across all domains – physical, cognitive, social, and emotional – and provides a meaningful context for learning and growth. Through play, children construct knowledge, develop skills, express creativity, and build relationships with others.

Children make choices about what to play with, how to use the materials (toys), and whether or not there will be others involved. They make these decisions based on who and what is in the environment. For example, when he arrives and enters the classroom, four-year-old Joey plays with puzzles every day. When he gets to the program on Wednesday, he goes directly to the puzzle shelf and pulls down a puzzle. He glances over at three peers who are building a boat with blocks. Joey looks back and forth at the puzzle and the block building several times. Hesitantly, he sets the puzzle back on the shelf and goes over to the block area and says, “I am going to build a very big ship” and starts to build next to his peers’ boat. In this example, Joey is originally interested in working a puzzle, but the boat building also captured his attention. He pauses before he starts the puzzle and seems to think about what he wants to do. The behavior, playing with puzzles or blocks, is observable and extrinsic. The decision-making is intrinsic, an internal cognitive and social/emotional process of making a decision about what he will do.

A careful observer who has a relationship with Joey and knows him well could comment on Joeys’ motivation (Erikson, 1963), interests (Dewey, 1913, and thinking (Piaget, 1962; Vygotsky, 1978), however these comments are only a hypothesis and Joey’s actions may change at any moment.

This is the creative and fluid part of play—young children’s actions change due to shifts in interests, developmental levels, and various other reasons that are unseen. Play is complex and when you think about these things, you can see how it is difficult to describe.

Description of Play

Although play is complex, there are key components that can be used to describe it. Three words that have been used to describe play are: choice, wonder, and delight (Mardell, 2019). Play, even for infants and toddlers, includes choices such as deciding what to play, how to play it, and for how long they want to play. It also includes imagination and making up the things that may be different from reality (Luckenbill, Subramaniam, & Thompson, 2019).

4.3 Play and Children’s Development

Play, with the opportunities for choice, wonder, and delight (Mardell, 2019), can be thought of as an experience rather than an activity. Experience and activity are not the same. Experiences involve personal connections and are defined as “something personally encountered, undergone, or lived through” (Meriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, 2005, p. 440).

The various definitions of activity include action and “being active” (Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, 2005, p. 13). Although play is active, it is also personal and involves children bringing their own knowledge of the world to build upon it either alone or with others during play experiences (Parten, 1932; Piaget, 1962; Smilanky & Sheftaya, 1990; Smith, 2010, Sutton-Smith, 1997, Vygotsky, 1978). A well-designed environment can be used by a skillful teacher for play experiences as a priority for supporting children’s learning. Chapter 8 of this book will address the environment.

Play, as an experience, can result in benefits for children as it creates conditions conducive to growth and development (Dewey, 1938/1997; NAEYC, 2020; Piaget, 1973). Despite the benefits, academic instruction (such as learning the names of letters and numbers) is valued over play in some early learning programs (Almon & Miller, 2011). This is creating a reduction in opportunities for children to play. Because it is important for children’s development, the American Academy of Pediatrics published a report to guide doctors with information needed to talk with families about play, including writing a prescription for it (Yogman, et al., 2018).

Katz (2010) wrote about “standards of experience” and described how instead of emphasizing performance standards (such as identifying letters and numbers), teachers and other early learning professionals can think about types of experiences offered for children. Rather than academic activities, children can engage in play, which allows them to pursue what is of interest to them and to do so at their own developmental level. In the video below, Carlsson-Paige (2013) explains play, children’s learning, her concerns regarding academic activities versus play experiences.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BZzFM1MHz_M

As you saw in the video, play experiences create opportunities for children to engage in all areas of development and it promotes creative thought and expression (Bodrova & Leong, 1996; Carlson, 2011; Dewey, 1913, 1916/1944, 1938/1997; Isbell & Yoshizawa, 2016; Parten, 1932; Piaget, 1962, 1973; Smilansky & Sheftaya, 1990; Smith, 2010; Sutton-Smith, 1997; Yogman et al., 2018). Additionally, play is valuable because it can result in practice that builds various skills (Sutton-Smith, 1997). The domains of development are cognitive, physical, social, and emotional. These areas overlap and intersect with one another and this can be seen during play. For the purposes of understanding how play supports each developmental domain, the domains will be described separately but keep in mind that all developmental domains are used when children are playing.

Image 7.2 Concentration is licensed under CC by 1.0

Cognitive Development

Play is intellectual; it requires thinking. When playing, children represent their thinking symbolically and through the use of physical and mental tools (Dewey, 1916/1944; Piaget, 1962, 1973; Vygotsky, 1978). During play children not only represent their ideas, but they also construct knowledge of the physical and social world (Piaget, 1962; Vygotsky, 1978). Play requires self-regulation, which builds executive function (Bodrova & Leong, 1996; Yogman, et al., 2018). As described by Yogman et al. (2018), play helps children develop 21^st Century skills such as creative thinking and problem solving, and these skills use executive functioning.

Physical Development

Equally important to cognition is physical development. Physical development includes fine and gross motor skills as well as movement. When children use materials and toys in play, they use fine and gross motor skills and in some forms of play engage in movement and physical activity. Physical development begins before birth as babies move their bodies in the womb and continues throughout childhood (Carlson, 2011). Infants engage in sensorimotor activity, such as waving a rattle and watching it. This type of play is physical and interrelated to cognition and future development (Dewey, 1913; Erikson, 1963; Piaget, 1962; Vygotsky, 1978).

Sensorimotor play continues in toddlers with increased mobility as children learn to walk and are continually in motion (Carlson, 2011). There is interest and motivation to move oneself and objects (Dewey, 1913) and at times it can take a lot of effort and/or is sustained for a length of time. This can be observed when watching a one-year-old move objects around the room such as pushing a chair or box, and the primary interest in this play is to move. Preschoolers gain coordination and increasing competence with physical activity (Carlson, 2011).

As fine and gross motor skills are refined, it is demonstrated in the way they play with toys that connect, sensory materials such as play dough and clay, and writing/drawing materials. They also use large motor skills such as running, jumping, and climbing. As children get older, they have the motor ability to build with materials such as Legos and can play games like hopscotch.

Social and Emotional Development

Social and emotional development is also important for children. Children play with adults and with each other, therefore they engage in social interaction. There is an intrinsic, emotional aspect to play. The previous description of play as involving choice, wonder, and delight (Mardell, 2019) provides a summary of the emotional aspects of play.

Each word—choice, wonder, and delight—involves emotions. Children choose based on interests and motivation (Dewey, 1913). Wonder involves curiosity and is usually related to positive emotional interest. Delight is a word to describe pleasure and joy. Imagine three children playing outside where there are rocks that are large enough to stay in place but small enough for a child to move. One child turns a rock over. The children find bugs and worms that were underneath the rock and one exclaimed “Wow, look at that! Another said: “He is moving, look, he is crawling really fast!” The third said: “Where is he going?” A debate starts about whether or not the bug is scared, hungry, or looking for a new home. In this example, the children decided to play with the rock and move it, were excited about what they found under it, and wondered about what the creatures were doing. Take a minute to think about your emotions when you can make choices, in what you wonder about, and how you feel when you hear the word delight.

Language Development

Play provides a rich context for language development, as children engage in verbal interactions, storytelling, and symbolic representation. Through play, children expand their vocabulary, practice using language for various purposes, and develop narrative skills. Play also supports the development of receptive language skills, as children listen and respond to the ideas and perspectives of others.

In conclusion, play involves all of the developmental domains. There is a developmental aspect to play. The play of very young children—infants—is quite different from the play of older children. These differences are a result of development and life experiences. Developmental progression is a basis for some theories and authors, such as Piaget (1962, 1973) and Parten (1932). Play is complex and there are many ways in which to examine children’s play, the benefits of it, and it can be helpful to use the domains as a framework for understanding play and development. Reading about the types of play bring further clarification of play and its role in children’s development and early learning.

4.4 Types of Play

As established at the beginning of this chapter, play is complex. For the purposes of studying and understanding play, it is often divided into types of play (Luckenbill et al., 2019; Smith, 2010). Similar to describing play, the categories are complex and they overlap (Smith, 2010). Nevertheless, categorizing play into differing types aids in understanding it. This section is categorized into six types:

• sensorimotor
• exploratory
• constructive
• dramatic
• physical
• outdoor/nature

Risky play, which could be classified as its own type of play, is included with nature play because outdoor experiences create good opportunities for risk-taking.

Sensorimotor Play

Sensorimotor play begins early in life (Luckenbill et al., 2019; Piaget, 1962, 1973; Smith, 2010). In sensorimotor play children engage with physical movement and input from the senses. The play actions can include materials, the child’s own body, other people, and sensory action and exploration. Actions may be repetitive. They also can build and expand from the repetitions (Piaget, 1962). Sensorimotor play is common in Infants and toddlers.

Exploratory Play

Infants and toddlers often engage in exploratory play, although older children will explore new materials (Smith, 2010). Exploratory play is exploration. When engaged in exploratory play, children are learning about the materials. Think about when you get a new item, such a new stove, car, type of yarn, sewing machine, or power tool. You take time to get to know the new features and if appropriate, how it feels to use the new item. You explore the new item. Similarly, in exploratory play, that is what children do to get to know the materials. Exploratory play may be referred to as practice play (Piaget, 1962) or functional play (Smilansky and Sheftaya, 1990). In this chapter the term exploratory is used because it is descriptive of what children do when engaged in this type of play. The video link below is example of a baby engaging in exploratory play.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8xyGprVxAKI

Constructive Play

When children have an understanding of materials, they can use them in a purposeful manner. If they are not familiar with the materials, they explore and learn about the materials work rather than intentionally create. Constructive play can be described as using open-ended materials to create things (Luckenbill, et al., 2019; Smith, 2010). Think about children playing with blocks. They use the blocks with purpose to build roads, ships, airplanes, castles, beds, etc. Through exploratory play they learned they can stack the blocks and this knowledge leads to purposeful use of the materials to create. Another example is with sticks. Exploration may include waving and breaking sticks. Some sticks are not as easy to wave or break. Such sticks might be used to build or stir.

Dramatic Play

Constructive play can lead to and be used with dramatic play. Dramatic play is known by other names such as pretend and fantasy play. In the video from the Play and Children’s Learning section above, Carlsson-Paige (2013) described a dramatic play (she used the word fantasy) episode in which her son became a firefighter. In dramatic play, children take on roles and act out scenarios. Imitation, such as with the child acting as a firefighter, can be a part of dramatic play (Piaget, 1962; Erikson, 1963). Children may build a fire station with blocks and other materials, perhaps sticks as hoses, and once built it emerges into dramatic play because they become firefighters.

When dramatic play involves others, it is socio-dramatic play (Smilansky & Sheftaya, 1990). Socio-dramatic play most often begins when children are three. Toddlers usually engage in dramatic play alone. Older children, even beyond preschool years, engage in socio-dramatic play, although it is not inappropriate for them to play alone, in any type of play. The following video shows both dramatic and socio-dramatic play.

https://illinoisearlylearning.org/videos/videos-parenting/boxespretend/

Children engage in dramatic play in differing ways. Parten (1932) identified six ways children participate in socio-dramatic play, which can be called engagement strategies. The six engagement strategies are on a continuum ranging from not involved to active participation. The engagement strategies are as follows: unoccupied, solitary, onlooker, parallel, associative, cooperative (Parten, 1932). Unoccupied play is not playing or doing anything in particular; solitary is playing alone; onlooker is watching others play, usually showing interest but not getting involved; parallel is playing next to another but not together; associative is playing next to, at times talking and/or looking at the other person, but not playing the same thing; and cooperative is children playing together, doing the same thing, and creating one storyline (Parten, 1932).

Unoccupied and solitary can be classified under dramatic play, onlooker, parallel, associative, and cooperative fit into socio-dramatic play. Furthermore, Parten’s (1932) study revealed that the engagement strategies can be considered as progressive stages because the findings indicated that older preschoolers used cooperative play, but younger children did not. My observations as a preschool teacher for over 20 years, as an on-site trainer for early childhood programs, and as a college instructor have been consistent with Parten’s (1932) findings that the stages show a developmental continuum. Children will engage in “earlier” stages but until ready to not use later stages such as cooperative play. It may be helpful to add that I found socio-dramatic play to be fascinating, informative, and complex to observe as well as useful in the teaching and learning process.

Image 7.3 Building Together is licensed under CC by 1.0

An example of constructive play used in conjunction with dramatic/socio-dramatic play may illustrate the complexity and value of play as part of the teaching and learning. It is possible that a child may be involved in a socio-dramatic play situation but primarily engaging in constructive play, such as in building a boat or an airplane for others to use in the cooperative play story line. Nevertheless, the social involvement is significant because the child is participating with others and must construct in accordance with the play topic. If the play topic is taking a trip and traveling on an airplane, it would not be appropriate to construct a boat. If the builder has built boats and has no experiences with airplanes but is interested in play with the others, an airplane must be constructed. A boat will not work for air travel. The builder must now expand thinking and self-regulate to stay on task to build an airplane. The builder may or may not have information about airplanes. Lack of information adds another layer of complexity and opportunity for learning.

This example illustrates that there are implicit (not stated) rules in socio-dramatic play (Bodrova & Leong, 2007; Vygotsky, 1978). It also brings to light Vygostky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) (1978). The ZPD is a range in which can function alone and with assistance. A child can function at a higher level with assistance from others. In this case, if the builder has minimal information about airplanes and has never been on one, the peers can provide the needed information for constructing the plane that includes the inside accommodations for travelers.

Additionally, according to Vygotsky’s theory (1978), preschool children function at their highest level when engaged in socio-dramatic play. Socio-dramatic play requires self-regulation and executive functioning (Bodrova & Leong, 2007; Vygotsky, 1978). It is also important to note that children’s interests can provide motivation for trying new things (Dewey, 1913).

Physical Play

Children also engage in physical play. Physical play is active and robust in which children are engaged in gross motor movement (Smith, 2010; Pellegrini, 2011). Children of all ages engage in physical play, but it looks different in infants and usually involves such actions as kicking legs and waving arms (Pellegrini, 2011). Physical play has also been referred to as big body play (Carlson, 2011). Although adults can be uncomfortable with this type of play, it is beneficial for children’s physical development (Carlson, 2011).

Rough and tumble play is a form of physical play that is done with others (Carlson, 2011; Smith, 2010). Rough and tumble play is different from fighting. In rough and tumble play the goal is to play together rather than to harm or work against one another (Carlson, 2011). It occurs at all ages. It may be hard to imagine infants in rough and tumble play, but the examples given by Luckenbill et al. (2019) provide a good illustration: “infants crawling over other infants” and “pulling opposite each other on a length of fabric” (p. 9).

Image 7.4 Water Play is licensed under CC by 1.0

Outdoor/Nature Play

Physical play often occurs outdoors. Outdoor and nature play has been gaining attention in recent years and it has been shown that children’s outdoor experiences, especially with nature, have been decreasing, which may be contributing to developmental issues (Louv, 2005). In this chapter outdoor and nature play are considered one category. Nature is present outdoors, including places such as sidewalks, manufactured playgrounds, or concrete surfaces such as parking lots which seem to be devoid of natural elements. Weather, worms, insects, leaves, trees, weeds, etc. are part of nature and these are just a few examples of things that can be found in most any outdoor environment that children visit on a regular basis.

One way to think about outdoor/nature play is through thinking about outdoor spaces in early childhood programs as outdoor learning environments (OLE) (Cooper, 2015; Falk, 2018; Nature Explore Program, 2019). The OLE affords opportunities that are different from what is found indoors. It is not surprising that children’s play is different outdoors (Engelen et al., 2018). Nature provides loose parts (Nicholson, 1971) such as sticks, rocks, and logs that can be moved around and used in many differing ways.

Children tend to be active in the OLE because there is more space for running and other large motor activities such as playing on manufactured playground equipment or using natural elements. A log or tree, if permitted, can promote physical play, including climbing. Additionally, early childhood teachers allow more physical activity outdoors (Storli & Sandseter, 2015). The OLE also affords opportunities for risky play. Risky play is children taking on risks. This often causes adults concerns over safety even though children have the capability to negotiate risks (Keeler, 2020).

Children may see a risky situation and do one of the following: engage, change it so it is less risky, or choose not to engage (Lavrysen et al., 2017). A child may see a large rock and choose to try to climb it, get a block to stand on to assist with climbing, or do nothing with the rock. Engaging with risk, with or without changing it, is beneficial for children’s physical, social/emotional, and cognitive development (Bento & Costa, 2018; Keeler, 2020; Lavrysen et al., 2017; McClain & Vandermaas-Peeler, 2016).

The six categories of play provide a framework for understanding play. All types of play are a part of DAP (NAEYC, 2020). Each play type has been described separately but is not exclusive. The play types can be combined and often overlap when children are playing.

4.5 Play in the Early Childhood Classroom

Thus far in this chapter, play and its value for children has been described. Developmentally appropriate classrooms contain physical spaces with daily schedules that incorporate blocks of time for play (NAEYC, 2020). This includes time for indoor and outdoor play. Chapter 8 will address the environment but a few key aspects that relate to play are described in this section.

Indoors, children need time to get involved and fully engage in play, a minimum of 45 minutes. In a well-run classroom, children can engage in free play for up to one and half hours. This gives children time to choose what they want to do and fully engage in play. It also allows for the opportunity for children to create through constructive play and use the creation in dramatic play. Imagine how disappointing it would be to create an elaborate castle but not have time to dress up and play in it! Additionally, children need the materials and space to create the castle. Lack of open-ended materials and not enough space can result in missed opportunities for creative play, which also means they are not benefiting from such experiences.

As previously mentioned, the OLE provides opportunities for differing types of play, especially vigorous physical activity (Engelen et al., 2018) and risky play (Keeler, 2020; Storli & Sandseter, 2015. Outside time is typically not considered recess and a “break” because young children are learning all the time. Instead of recess, play and engagement in the OLE can be considered additional opportunities and enhancement of indoor learning (Mustapa, et al., 2015).

Image 7.5 Outdoor Play is licensed under CC by 1.0

Weather is often given as a reason for not playing outdoors. Not going outside when it is raining or snowing can contribute to missed opportunities, similar to what happened with the castle example above. Although at first it can appear as a daunting task to get children to put on outdoor gear such raincoats, hats, mittens, and boots, it becomes part of the routine as well as presents opportunities for practicing fine motor and self-help skills. The rain that is often present here in the Pacific Northwest is a wonderful resource for play! Water makes mud which can be used in making pies and soups, and especially for children who enjoy sensory and pretend play.

Allowing children to use the environment, especially outdoors, is also a challenge for teachers. This can relate to weather, such as playing in puddles, as well as with using items from the environment. Loose parts such as sticks, rocks, wood chips can be added to soups and pies (perhaps made with water and mud) and can be used in other ways. Children use items in the environment for dramatic play. One teacher described the children using wood chips as food for playing restaurant, specifically Happy Meals at the McDonald’s drive-through. The outdoor playhouse was the building; children served the woodchips to other children (and teachers) as they walked or rode bikes to the drive through (M. Naw, personal communication, January 15, 2021). Another teacher described how the children would organize themselves to re-enact the story of the Three Billy Goats Gruff using a log as a bridge for the troll (T. Sy, personal communication, December 28, 2020). Both teachers said the children played these storylines many times and each time the play included more than one child and was done outdoors, but not indoors. Additionally, stationary items such as large rocks and logs can be used for physical and risky play.

The early childhood classroom, indoors and out, should be an environment that is rich with opportunities for play. Chapter 8 will address the environment. As you read the chapter you can think about how environmental design creates opportunities for the different types of play.

4.6 Issues & Challenges with Play

Although children all over the world play (Carlsson-Paige, 2013), some face challenges in doing so. Take a moment to think about what play involves, especially constructive and dramatic/socio-dramatic play. To construct, children need to know about the materials and how to put them together, have the physical development to work with the materials, use creative thinking, and stay on task. To engage in dramatic play, they need to have a topic to play (cooking, airplane, boat, family, etc.), use creative thinking, and if socio-dramatic they need to be able to follow the storyline, self-regulate, and sometimes the skills need to enter a group. An additional type of play that has been gaining attention is risky play involves understanding one’s own skills and the emotional willingness to try something challenging (Keeler, 2020). This list of skills and abilities is a general list, and it is lengthy! You can imagine what it takes to engage in play and that some children face challenges.

Some of the common challenges and issues children face with play can be grouped into three categories: materials, language, and other. These categories were created as a way of explaining the challenges. The descriptions in each category are not comprehensive. The purpose is to give the reader a general idea of reasons children may struggle with play, especially in an early childhood classroom.

Image 7.6 Creative Play is licensed under CC by 1.0

Often children use materials and toys when they play. As you have read about in this chapter, during exploratory play children explore and gain an understanding of materials and in constructive play the materials are used purposefully. As infants and toddlers, they look at, move around, and try to work the materials. One issue that can arise is when infants and toddlers do not take initiative and explore with materials.

Sometimes older children have difficulty using materials. This may be because they have limited experience with the materials, therefore they need time to engage in exploratory play. It also could be that a child needs support to learn to use the materials purposefully. Most children gain a sense of using materials through exploratory play, but some do not. An example is a four-year-old who would touch pieces together, but never connect or build. He did this with duplos and any other type of toy that connected together. His “play” with the materials lasted about two minutes and then he’d throw the toys. This frustrated his peers. Often, this child would engage in inappropriate behaviors to gain attention. The situation was resolved when the teachers took time to play with him and show him how to work the materials. Once he knew what to do with the materials, he could purposefully engage. He needed the support of the teachers to gain an understanding of the skill for using the materials.

Language, the second category listed above, may not be as easy to see as the challenges with materials. When children play with peers, in constructive or socio-dramatic play, they communicate and most often do so through words. Children need to be able to talk to and understand what peers are saying. Expressive language is talking so a person knows what is said being and saying it in a manner that makes sense. Receptive language is understanding what is being said. Both expressive and receptive language are a part of play with others, especially socio-dramatic play.

Children usually start to engage in cooperative play (Parten, 1932) at about three years and have the speech and language to communicate effectively. Some children do not have this level of speech and language. If a child struggles with saying words, doing so in a way that others can understand, and/or following what is being said, it makes it difficult and frustrating for the child. Children can be very accepting of one another, but the child who is struggling knows that peers are not understanding what is being said or feels confused by what is going on. This area is one of the more challenging areas for teachers because it can be difficult to intervene. When adults enter, children’s play often changes. There is a fine line between interrupting and changing the play versus supporting it and a child who may be struggling. It is not within the scope of this chapter to address interventions, rather the point is to bring awareness that children can struggle with play and that teachers support is needed.

Image 7.7 Cooperative Play is licensed under CC by 1.0

In addition to materials and language, there is the “other” category. This category is broad and includes physical challenges, such as sitting in a wheelchair with limited access to the play area, not being able to see or hear, or other motor challenges that get in the way of playing. A child may not fit into an area or may have coordination difficulties and knock over what is being built. Some interventions for physical challenges can be addressed with environmental design. As you read Chapter 8 you can keep physical challenges in play in your mind. You may start to see the significance of intentionally designed environments and the complexities teachers face in doing so.

The other category also includes not playing for various reasons such as: wandering, flitting about rather than sustaining play, staying in the onlooker stage (Parten, 1932) rather than eventually joining, and being rejected from play. This is a list of common challenges and it is not comprehensive. With each of these reasons, teacher support targeted to help the child gain the needed skills, is beneficial. Once again, it is beyond the scope of this chapter to fully address challenges in play and how to foster and support children, rather this chapter will give the reader an idea of play in an early childhood classroom.

Rejection is worth a special mention because it happens and it can be overlooked in a busy early childhood classroom, especially at full-day program in which children are there for eight or more hours. In kindergarten through third grade classrooms where children go outside for recess and often play with peers, it can easily go unnoticed. Play, especially cooperative play (Parten, 1932), takes a lot of work. It can be quite difficult when there are more players, which means more roles and more ideas. It also means more personalities and more negotiation. A well-known author, Vivian Gussin Paley, regarding children’s play pondered inclusion and specifically wrote “…the rejected children know who they are, whether or not they tell us” (p. 15). From years of experience, I have to agree. I have a vivid memory, from 17 years ago, of a mother reporting that her child was upset about peer moving to a new school. Her child rarely interacted with the one who moved, so she asked why he was so concerned. His reply “Because he is the mean kid, just like me. We both have no friends to play with.” I think this underscores the importance of teacher observation, assessment, and support during children’s play.

Rejection and the other challenges children face with play are a concern. Not only is it sad to hear about rejection, but the result is also—as with any other reason a child does not play—that a child is not fully participating in the classroom. Play is a part of the curriculum (NAEYC, 2020) and all children need classrooms that allow for full participation and engagement.

Final Thoughts

Attributions

“When Education Goes Wrong: Dr. Nancy Carlsson Paige at TEDxTheCalhounSchool” is CC BY-NC ND 4.0

“Parenting Counts: Babies Need to Test Everything” is a video by KCTS9 Public Broadcasting Services.

“Pretend Play with Big Boxes” is a video by the Illinois Early Learning Project.

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Engelen, L., Wyver, S., Perry, G., Bundy, A., Chan, T. K., Ragen, J., Bauman, A., Naughton, G. (2018). Spying on children during a playground intervention using a novel method for direct observation of activities during outdoor play. Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning, 18(1), 86-95. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080.14729679.2017.1347048

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Falk, J. (2018). Needed: A stronger voice for quality early childhood outdoor learning environments. North American Association for Environmental Education. Retrieved from: https://naturalstart.org/feature-stories/needed-stronger-voice-quality-early-childhood-outdoor-learning-environments

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Illinois Early Learning Project. (2021). Pretend play with big boxes [Video]. https://illinoisearlylearning.org/videos/videos-parenting/boxespretend/

Isbell, R., & Yoshizawa, S. A. (2016). Nurturing creativity: An essential mindset for young children’s learning. National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Katz, L. (2010). Standards of experience. Retrieved from https://www.communityplaythings.com/resources/articles/2010/standards-of-experience

KCTS9. (2009). Parenting counts: Babies need to test everything [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8xyGprVxAKI

Keeler, R. (2020). Adventures in risky play: What is your yes? Exchange Press.

Lavrysen, A., Bertrands, E., Leyssen, L., Smets, L., Vanderspikken, A., De Graef, P. (2017). Risky-play at school: Facilitating risk perception and competence in young children. European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 25(1), 89-105. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1350293X.2015.1102412

Louv, R. (2005). Last child in the woods: Saving our children from nature-deficit disorder. Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill.

Luckenbill, J., Subramaniam, A., & Thompson, J. (2019). This is play: Environments and interactions that engage infants and toddlers. National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Mardell, B. (2019). Playful learning in early childhood classrooms: It’s complicated. Exchange, 247, 53-56.

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Paley, V. G. (1992). You can’t say you can’t play. Harvard University Press.

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Sutton-Smith, B. (1997). The ambiguity of play. Wiley-Blackwell.

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Yogman, M., Garner, A., Hutchinson, J., Hirsh-Paskek, K., Golinkoff, R. M. (2018). The power of play: A pediatric role in enhancing development in young children. Pediatrics, 142(3), 1-16. doi: https://doi.org/10.1542.peds.2018-2058

Websites You May Want to Explore Further

Center for Inclusive Child Care (podcasts address play)

https://www.inclusivechildcare.org/

Building Babies Brains Through Play: Mini-Parenting Master Class (Center on Developing Child Harvard University)

https://developingchild.harvard.edu/resources/building-babies-brains-through-play-mini-parenting-master-class/

Dr. Lillian Katz: What Should Children be Learning?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aiZW0jIngc8

Exploring Playful Learning in Schools Around the World Video (Ben Mardell) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DWHSewOTx6Q

Pedagogy of Play (Project Zero/Ben Mardell) http://www.pz.harvard.edu/projects/pedagogy-of-play

10 Things Every Parent Should Know About Play

https://www.naeyc.org/our-work/families/10-things-every-parent-play

30 Reasons Why Play is Important for Children with Disabilities (Playground Equipment)

https://www.playgroundequipment.com/30-reasons-why-play-is-important-for-children-with-disabilities/

Top 5 Benefits of Children Playing Outside (Sanford Health)

https://news.sanfordhealth.org/childrens/play-outside/