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Learning Objectives

  • In this chapter you will
    • learn about Elizabeth Barrett Browning and George Sand,
    • learn more about Sand’s oeuvre by reading a chapter from her novel Indiana,
    • you will analyse and reflect upon Barrett Browning’s sonnets about Sand,
    • by reading an article by Margaret Morlier, you will be provided with a larger historical context of Barrett Browning’s sonnets and you will be able to fully understand the metaphors in both sonnets.

Do you know the poet

Elizabeth Barrett Browning?

Read two poems written

by Elizabeth Barrett Browning,

dedicated to the French novelist George Sand.

 

Elizabeth Barrett Browning

To George Sand: A Desire (1844); To George Sand: A Recognition (1844)

Thou large-brained woman and large-hearted man,

Self-called George Sand! whose soul, amid the lions

Of thy tumultuous senses, moans defiance

And answers roar for roar, as spirits can:

I would some mild miraculous thunder ran

Above the applauded circus, in appliance

Of thine own nobler nature’s strength and science,

Drawing two pinions, white as wings of swan,

From thy strong shoulders, to amaze the place

With holier light! that thou to woman’s claim

And man’s, mightst join beside the angel’s grace

Of a pure genius sanctified from blame

Till child and maiden pressed to thine embrace

To kiss upon thy lips a stainless fame.

https://poets.org/poem/george-sand-desire

 

To George Sand: A Recognition

True genius, but true woman!dost deny

Thy woman’s nature with a manly scorn

And break away the gauds and armlets worn

By weaker women in captivity?

Ah, vain denial! that revolted cry

Is sobbed in by a woman’s voice forlorn—

Thy woman’s hair, my sister, all unshorn

Floats back dishevelled strength in agony

Disproving thy man’s name: and while before

The world thou burnest in a poet-fire,

We see thy woman-heart beat evermore

Through the large flame. Beat purer, heart, and higher,

Till God unsex thee on the heavenly shore,

Where unincarnate spirits purely aspire!

https://poets.org/poem/george-sand-recognition

Activity 2

Read some lines from the book Literary Women by Ellen Moers about Barrett Browning’s admiration of Sand, as seen in her correspondence with her friend and author Mary Russel Mitford: 

Miss Barrett tried to persuade Miss Mitford that they should send their latest books, tied together in a parcel for courage, to the great Mme Sand. They both enormously admired her, but, as respectable English literary spinsters, they were nervous about approaching her. For George Sand not only had lovers (which was known to happen, even in England, in the high social circles with which Sand, by family background, was associated); but she wore pants when it suited her convenience as a young woman, and she always smoked—depths of depravity which only twentieth-century women can appreciate at their true value. “Suppose you send her ‘Belford Regis’ or another work”, Miss Barrett suggested to Miss Milford,

and let me slip mine into the shade of it? Suppose we join so in expressing, as two English female writers, our sense of the genius of that distinguished woman?—if it did not strike you as presumption in me to put my name to yours as a writer, saying ‘we’. We  are equally bold at any rate. Mr Kenyon told me I was ‘a daring person’ for the introduction of those sonnets … [the two she wrote to George Sand, and published in her Poems of 1844]. Well!—are you inclined to do it ?Will you? Write and tell me. I would give anything to have a letter from her, though it smelt of cigar. And it would, of course!

For once, Miss Barrett’s wish was not immediately gratified; there was to be no tobacco-scented letter. But there were at last to be, though Robert Browning protested, two visits to Mme Sand. (Moers 21985: 54)

Why do you think it was so important for Elizabeth Barrett Browning to contact George Sand? To which woman writer would you send a letter/ an e-mail of admiration? How would you express your praise? Would you praise her writings, her personal integrity, or something else?

 

Activity 3

  • Describe your feelings about the poem and try to interpret it. Do you need more information about George Sand? Do you think that if we know who she was the interpretation is different? Explain your answer. If you are not a specialist in George Sand then learn more about her or deepen your knowledge by listening to the BBC podcast about her life and work. Answer the following questions: What was Sand’s family background? What was the role of her grandmother? You can also watch a video or a French documentary about  the Nohant mansion. What was Sand’s education like? Whom did she marry?When did her rebellion against social norms take place in a dramatic way for the first time?Which was her first novel? What does an eponymous heroine of the novel seek? How does she describe marriage?Could we speak about autobiographic traits in Sand’s novels? How can Sand’s crossdressing be explained? When and why did she wear male attire?What rights did she demand for women? Was she a suffragette? Describe the heroines of her novels.What is typical for her writings? What influence did she have on her contemporaries and what status does she have now?Who is the narrator in her novels?Sand’s gender identity was ambiguous, she decided for a male pseudonym and wore man’s clothes. This poses a question  – Did she write as a woman?” What do you think? Find some arguments in the talk by Professor Belinda Jack.Now take a break and watch a video about Sand’s and Chopin’s stay on Mallorca. You have heard in the BBC podcast that Sand’s writings display a large variety of style, cover a wide range of subjects and types of writing extremely well and that many of her heroines strive for liberation and that a marriage is depicted as a slavery of a woman.Her works have a lot of autobiographical traits, she is more indirect here than in her autobiography. She depicts women who fight for their love despite social limitations, they fight especially hard against loveless marriages. Most of George Sand’s heroines are morally superior to men with whom they were supposed to marry, sometimes even lovers fall into that inferior category. In Indiana,  the husband is an aggressive tyrant and the lover is a cynical and heartless egoist; the lover stays cold even after Indiana bravely leaves her husband, in fact, he starts to search for new love affairs. The author first showed, without any embellishments, the relationship between the married couple, towards the end of the novel she also points to the husband’s brutality when he finds his wife’s diary entry. First, read an article about  Indiana and then read a chapter from Indiana to learn more about Sand’s style and critical depiction of a male tyrant.

George Sand; Indiana, chapter XXVI

During the three months that elapsed between the despatch of this letter and its arrival at Ile Bourbon, Madame Delmare’s situation had become almost intolerable, as the result of a domestic incident of the greatest importance to her. She had adopted the depressing habit of writing down every evening a narrative of the sorrowful thoughts of the day. This journal of her sufferings was addressed to Raymon, and, although she had no intention of sending it to him, she talked with him, sometimes passionately, sometimes bitterly, of the misery of her life and of the sentiments which she could not overcome. These papers fell into Delmare’s hands, that is to say, he broke open the box which contained them as well as Raymon’s letters, and devoured them with a jealous, frenzied eye. In the first outbreak of his wrath he lost the power to restrain himself and went outside, with fast-beating heart and clenched fists, to await her return from her walk. Perhaps, if she had been a few minutes later, the unhappy man would have had time to recover himself; but their evil star decreed that she should appear before him almost immediately. Thereupon, unable to utter a word, he seized her by the hair, threw her down and stamped on her forehead with his heel.

He had no sooner made that bloody mark of his brutal nature upon a poor, weak creature, than he was horrified at what he had done. He fled in dire dismay, and locked himself in his room, where he cocked his pistol preparatory to blowing out his brains; but as he was about to pull the trigger he looked out on the veranda and saw that Indiana had risen and, with a calm, self-possessed air, was wiping away the blood that covered her face. As he thought that he had killed her, his first feeling was of joy when he saw her on her feet; then his wrath blazed up anew.

“It is only a scratch,” he cried,”and you deserve a thousand deaths! No, I will not kill myself; for then you would go and rejoice over it in your lover’s arms. I do not propose to assure the happiness of both of you; I propose to live to make you suffer, to see you die by inches of deathly ennui, to dishonor the infamous creature who has made a fool of me!”

He was battling with the tortures of jealous rage, when Ralph entered the veranda by another door and found Indiana in the disheveled condition in which that horrible scene had left her. But she had not manifested the slightest alarm, she had not uttered a cry, she had not raised her hand to ask for mercy. Weary of life as she was, it seemed that she had been desirous to give Delmare time to commit murder by refraining from calling for help. It is certain that when the assault took place Ralph was within twenty yards, and that he had not heard the slightest sound.

“Indiana!” he cried, recoiling in horror and surprise; “who has wounded you thus?”

“Do you ask?” she replied with a bitter smile; “what other than your friend has the right and the inclination?”

Ralph dropped the cane he held; he needed no other weapons than his great hands to strangle Delmare. He reached his door in two leaps and burst it open with his fist. But he found Delmare lying on the floor, with purple cheeks and swollen throat, struggling in the noiseless convulsions of apoplexy.

He seized the papers that were scattered over the floor. When he recognized Raymon’s handwriting and saw the ruins of the letter-box, he understood what had happened; and, carefully collecting the accusing documents, he hastened to hand them to Madame Delmare and urged her to burn them at once. Delmare had probably not taken time to read them all.

Then he begged her to go to her room while he summoned the slaves to look after the colonel; but she would neither burn the papers nor hide the wound.

“No,” she said haughtily, “I will not do it! That man did not scruple to tell Madame de Carvajal of my flight long ago; he made haste to publish what he called my dishonor. I propose to show to everybody this token of his own dishonor which he has taken pains to stamp on my face. It is a strange sort of justice that requires one to keep secret another’s crimes, when that other assumes the right to brand one without mercy!”

When Ralph found the colonel was in a condition to listen to him, he heaped reproaches upon him with more energy and severity than one would have thought him capable of exhibiting. Thereupon Delmare, who certainly was not an evil-minded man, wept like a child over what he had done; but he wept without dignity, as a man can do when he abandons himself to the sensation of the moment, without reasoning as to its causes and effects. Prompt to jump to the opposite extreme, he would have called his wife and solicited her pardon; but Ralph objected and tried to make him understand that such a puerile reconciliation would impair the authority of one without wiping out the injury done to the other. He was well aware that there are injuries which are never forgiven and miseries which one can never forget.

From that moment, the husband’s personality became hateful in the wife’s eyes. All that he did to atone for his treatment of her deprived him of the slight consideration he had retained thus far. He had in very truth made a tremendous mistake; the man who does not feel strong enough to be cold and implacable in his vengeance should abjure all thought of impatience or resentment. There is no possible rôle between that of the Christian who forgives and that of the man of the world who spurns. But Delmare had his share of selfishness too; he felt that he was growing old, that his wife’s care was becoming more necessary to him every day. He was terribly afraid of solitude, and if, in the paroxysm of his wounded pride, he recurred to his habits as a soldier and maltreated her, reflection soon led him back to the characteristic weakness of old men, whom the thought of desertion terrifies. Too enfeebled by age and hardships to aspire to become a father, he had remained an old bachelor in his home, and had taken a wife as he would have taken a housekeeper. It was not from affection for her, therefore, that he forgave her for not loving him, but from regard for his own comfort: and if he grieved at his failure to command her affections, it was because he was afraid that he should be less carefully tended in his old age.

When Madame Delmare, for her part, being deeply aggrieved by the operation of the laws of society, summoned all her strength of mind to hate and despise them, there was a wholly personal feeling at the bottom of her thoughts. But it may be that this craving for happiness which consumes us, this hatred of injustice, this thirst for liberty which ends only with life, are the constituent elements of egotism, a name by which the English designate love of self, considered as one of the privileges of mankind and not as a vice. It seems to me that the individual who is selected out of all the rest to suffer from the working of institutions that are advantageous to his fellowmen ought, if he has the least energy in his soul, to struggle against this arbitrary yoke. I also think that the greater and more noble his soul is, the more it should rankle and fester under the blows of injustice. If he has ever dreamed that happiness was to be the reward of virtue, into what ghastly doubts, what desperate perplexity must he be cast by the disappointments which experience brings!

Thus all Indiana’s reflections, all her acts, all her sorrows were a part of this great and terrible struggle between nature and civilization. If the desert mountains of the island could have concealed her long, she would assuredly have taken refuge among them on the day of the assault upon her; but Bourbon was not of sufficient extent to afford her a secure hiding-place, and she determined to place the sea and uncertainty as to her place of refuge between her tyrant and herself. When she had formed this resolution, she felt more at ease and was almost gay and unconcerned at home. Delmare was so surprised and delighted that he indulged apart in this brutal reasoning: that it was a good thing to make women feel the law of the strongest now and then.

Thereafter she thought of nothing but flight, solitude and independence; she considered in her tortured, grief-stricken brain innumerable plans of a romantic establishment in the deserts of India or Africa. At night she followed the flight of the birds to their resting-place at Ile Rodrigue. That deserted island promised her all the pleasures of solitude, the first craving of a broken heart. But the same reasons that prevented her from flying to the interior of Bourbon caused her to abandon the idea of seeking refuge in the small islands near by. She often met at the house tradesmen from Madagascar, who had business relations with her husband; dull, vulgar, copper-colored fellows who had no tact or shrewdness except in forwarding their business interests. Their stories attracted Madame Delmare’s attention, none the less; she enjoyed questioning them concerning the marvelous products of that island, and what they told her of the prodigies performed by nature there intensified more and more the desire that she felt to go and hide herself away there. The size of the island and the fact that Europeans occupied so small a portion of it led her to hope that she would never be discovered. She decided upon that place, therefore, and fed her idle mind upon dreams of a future which she proposed to create for herself, unassisted. She was already building her solitary cabin under the shade of a primeval forest, on the bank of a nameless river; she fancied herself taking refuge under the protection of those savage tribes whom the yoke of our laws and our prejudices has not debased. Ignorant creature that she was, she hoped to find there the virtues that are banished from our hemisphere, and to live in peace, unvexed by any social constitution; she imagined that she could avoid the dangers of isolation, escape the malignant diseases of the climate. A weak woman, who could not endure the anger of one man, but flattered herself that she could defy the hardships of uncivilized life!

Amid these romantic thoughts and extravagant plans she forgot her present ills; she made for herself a world apart, which consoled her for that in which she was compelled to live; she accustomed herself to think less of Raymon, who was soon to cease to be a part of her solitary and philosophical existence. She was so busily occupied in constructing for herself a future according to her fancy that she let the past rest a little; and already, as she felt that her heart was freer and braver, she imagined that she was reaping in advance the fruits of her solitary life. But Raymon’s letter arrived, and that edifice of chimeras vanished like a breath. She felt, or fancied that she felt, that she loved him more than before. For my part, I like to think that she never loved him with all the strength of her soul. It seems to me that misplaced affection is as different from requited affection as an error from the truth. It seems to me that, although the excitement and ardor of our sentiments abuse us to the point of believing that that is love in all its power, we learn later, when we taste the delights of a true love, how entirely we deceived ourselves.

But Raymon’s situation, as he described it, rekindled in Indiana’s heart that generous flame which was a necessity of her nature. Fancying him alone and unhappy, she considered it her duty to forget the past and not to anticipate the future. A few hours earlier, she intended to leave her husband under the spur of hatred and resentment; now, she regretted that she did not esteem him so that she might make a real sacrifice for Raymon’s sake. So great was her enthusiasm that she feared that she was doing too little for him in fleeing from an irascible master at the peril of her life, and subjecting herself to the miseries of a four months’ voyage. She would have given her life, with the idea that it was too small a price to pay for a smile from Raymon. Women are made that way.

Thus it was simply a question of leaving the island. It was very difficult to elude Delmare’s distrust and Ralph’s clear-sightedness. But those were not the principal obstacles; it was necessary to avoid giving the notice of her proposed departure, which, according to law, every passenger is compelled to give through the newspapers.

Among the few vessels lying in the dangerous roadstead of Bourbon was the ship Eugène, soon to sail for Europe. For a long while Indiana sought an opportunity to speak with the captain without her husband’s knowledge, but whenever she expressed a wish to walk down to the port, he ostentatiously placed her in Ralph’s charge, and followed them with his own eyes with maddening persistence. However, by dint of picking up with the greatest care every scrap of information favorable to her plan, Indiana learned that the captain of the vessel bound for France had a kinswoman at the village of Saline in the interior of the island, and that he often returned from her house on foot, to sleep on board. From that moment she hardly left the cliff that served as her post of observation. To avert suspicion, she went thither by roundabout paths, and returned in the same way at night when she had failed to discover the person in whom she was interested on the road to the mountains.

She had but two days of hope remaining, for the landwind had already begun to blow. The anchorage threatened to become untenable, and Captain Random was impatient to be at sea.

However, she prayed earnestly to the God of the weak and oppressed, and went and stationed herself on the very road to Saline, disregarding the danger of being seen, and risking her last hope. She had not been waiting an hour when Captain Random came down the path. He was a genuine sailor, always rough-spoken and cynical, whether he was in good or bad humor; his expression froze Indiana’s blood with terror. Nevertheless, she mustered all her courage and walked to meet him with a dignified and resolute air.

“Monsieur,” she said, “I place my honor and my life in your hands. I wish to leave the colony and return to France. If, instead of granting me your protection, you betray the secret I confide to you, there is nothing left for me to do but throw myself into the sea.”

The captain replied with an oath that the sea would refuse to sink such a pretty lugger, and that, as she had come of her own accord and hove to under his lee, he would promise to tow her to the end of the world.

“You consent then, monsieur?” said Madame Delmare anxiously. “In that case here is the pay for my passage in advance.”

And she handed him a casket containing the jewels Madame de Carvajal had given her long before; they were the only fortune that she still possessed. But the sailor had different ideas, and he returned the casket with words that brought the blood to her cheeks.

“I am very unfortunate, monsieur,” she replied, restraining the tears of wrath that glistened behind her long lashes; “the proposition I am making to you justifies you in insulting me; and yet, if you knew how odious my life in this country is to me, you would have more pity than contempt for me.”

Indiana’s noble and touching countenance imposed respect on Captain Random. Those who do not wear out their natural delicacy by over-use sometimes find it healthy and unimpaired in an emergency. He recalled Colonel Delmare’s unattractive features and the sensation that his attack on his wife had caused in the colonies. While ogling with a lustful eye that fragile, pretty creature, he was struck by her air of innocence and sincerity. He was especially moved when he noticed on her forehead a white mark which the deep flush on her face brought out in bold relief. He had had some business relations with Delmare which had left him ill-disposed toward him; he was so close-fisted and unyielding in business matters.

“Damnation!” he cried, “I have nothing but contempt for a man who is capable of kicking such a pretty woman in the face! Delmare’s a pirate, and I am not sorry to play this trick on him; but be prudent, madame, and remember that I am compromising my good name. You must make your escape quietly when the moon has set, and fly like a poor petrel from the foot of some sombre reef.”

“I know, monsieur,” she replied, “that you cannot do me this very great favor without transgressing the law; you may perhaps have to pay a fine; that is why I offer you this casket, the contents of which are worth at least twice the price of a passage.”

The captain took the casket with a smile.

“This is not the time to settle our account,” he said; “I am willing to take charge of your little fortune. Under the circumstances I suppose you won’t have very much luggage; on the night we are to sail, hide among the rocks at the Anse aux Lataniers; between one and two o’clock in the morning a boat will come ashore pulled by two stout rowers, and bring you aboard.”

https://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/sand/indiana/indiana.html

Activity 4

The chapter is divided in three parts. Find the subtitle for each.

How does Sand depict a personal growth of the heroine?

According to critics, the novel blends the conventions of romanticism, realism and idealism. Do you find these styles also in the chapter above? Support your answer also with citations from the text.

Now read again both poems by Elisabeth Barrett Browning and try to interpret them. If the task is still to difficult, answer the questions below first:

What kind of duality does Barrett Browning observe in Sand’s appearance in both poems?

Which adjectives would you use to describe Sand after reading both poems?

Which adjectives does Barrett Browning attribute to each sex? Does Barrett Browning refute the traditional duality?

Which Sand’s qualities does Barrett Browning celebrate? Who is Sand compared to in the sonnet A desire? Do we know a real Sand or just an image of her? How does Barrett Browning depict “an ascension” of Sand? Who will welcome Sand in heaven?

Why is Sand a role model for Barrett Browning?

You can find analysis of  both poems on the website Genius (A Recognition, A Desire) and of the poem A Desire on this website – PoemAnalysis.

For a more profound insight, read the analysis by Susan Gubar and Sandra M. Gilbert below.

Susan Gubar, Sandra M. Gilbert: The Madwoman in the Attic. The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination

Inalterably female in a culture where creativity is defined purely in male terms, almost every woman writer must have experienced the kinds of gender-conflicts that Aphra Behn expressed when she spoke of “my masculine part, the poet in me. But for the nineteenth-century woman who tried to transcend her own anxiety of authorship and achieve patriarchal authority through metaphorical transvestism or male impersonation, even more radical psychic confusion must have been inevitable. Elizabeth Barrett Browning’s two striking sonnets on George Sand define and analyze the problem such a woman faced. […]

The implication is that, since Sand has crossed  into forbidden and anomalous sociosexual territory, she desperately needs “purification” — sexual, spiritual, and social. On the other hand, in the second sonnet (“To George Sand, A Recognition”) Barrett Browning insists that no matter what Sand does she is still inalterably female, and thus inexorably agonized. […]

In fact Barrett Browning declares, only in death will Sand be able to transcend the constrictions of her gender. Then God will “unsex” her “on the heavenly shore”. But until then, she must acquiesce in her inescapable femaleness, manifested by her “woman-heart’s” terrible beating “in a poet fire.”

Barrett Browning imagery is drastic, melodramatic, even grotesque, but there are strong reasons for the intensity with which she characterizes Sand’s representative identity crisis. As her own passionate involvement suggests, the problem Barrett Browning is really confronting in the Sand sonnets goes beyond the contradictions between vocation and gender that induced such anxiety in all these women, to include what we might call contradictions of genre and gender. Most Western literary genres are, after all, essentially male — devised by male authors to tell male stories about the world. (Gubar, Gilbert 2000: 66-67)

 

Further readings

Read a poem To George Sand on Her Interview with Elizabeth Barrett Browning. Learn more about Isa Blagden and write an essay about her reading of Barrett Browning’s sonnets dedicated to Sand. Read the following article: The Hero and the Sage: Elizabeth Barrett’s Sonnets “To George Sand” in Victorian Context.

References:

Susan Gubar, Sandra M. Gilbert: The Madwoman in the Attic. The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination. Second edition, 2000, p. 66-67.

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