Unit 1: First Words

A beginning is the time for taking the most delicate care that the balances are correct.

– ­
Frank Herbert’s
Dune

This isn’t just the beginning of this course. We’ll be looking at some of the earliest texts ever written by humans. They are thousands of years old and can provide insight into the thoughts and actions of people today.

Tablet with Cuneiform Inscription.
This file is in the public domain because it has been released by the Los Angeles County Museum of Art www.lacma.org with its “Public Domain High Resolution Image Available” mark.

Unit Plan

http://etana.org/node/581

Mark, Joshua J. “Enuma Elish – The Babylonian Epic of Creation.”
Ancient History Encyclopedia. Ancient History Encyclopedia Limited, 02 Mar. 2011. Web. 29 Sept. 2014.<http://www.ancient.eu/article/225/>.

Research:

Students will need to access a search engine or electronic database to find information about the geographical locations of these stories.

Technology Resources:

If students use an iPad then a brief tutorial on iBooks may be helpful.

Community Resources: Gilgamesh Study Guide

Guide to Responding: Gilgamesh Study Guide

Objectives

• Cite strong evidence to support analysis of what the text says.
• Determine themes and analyze their development.
• Analyze impact of author choices.

Overview

This unit covers some of the earliest recorded human writings.

• The Enuma elish
• The Gilgamesh Epic
• Flood narratives from the Judeo-Christian and Greek cultures

This unit is meant to generate discussion among students about the similarities in stories that humans across cultures tell. There are opportunities here for cross-curricular discussions about the cultures, eras and geography of the places in which they take place (i.e. the geography has a great deal to do with the kinds of stories that a culture produces.)

Major Themes:

• Mankind’s quest for immortality
• Mythology to explain surroundings
• Transition from oral to recorded history

As humans transition away from oral traditions to recorded history, this is the perfect unit to cover content in groups and call attention to the repetition and story elements that might no longer be necessary as thoughts can now be documented and stored in something other than brains.

As You Read:

Consider all of the work you have done in your English courses up to now. This is an opportunity for you to move beyond all of that and put together all of the skills you have learned. No more five paragraph themes and referring to your reader or yourself in your essays. Be sure to take notes on important details as you read, you will be asked to support your assertions and develop your reasoning beyond just giving a simple response. Being able to identify why and how are just as, if not more, important than the right answers (sometimes there isn’t just one, or even one at all).

Supplemental Resources:

Animated version of the
Gilgamesh Epic (https://youtu.be/xEeW1tx5QrQ)

BookRags Epic of Gilgamesh Summary & Study Guide
http://www.bookrags.com/studyguide-epicgilgamesh/#gsc.tab=0

SparkNotes
http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/gilgamesh

Annenberg Learner Resources
http://www.learner.org/courses/worldlit/gilgamesh

Teaching Strategies:

Since these stories were the first attempt at providing a written account of gods and heros from the oral tradition it may make sense to read them aloud in large groups to approximate how people may have heard them thousands of years ago. Oral storytelling contains a great deal of repetition so if you feel the need to condense some of the materials the stories lend themselves to shorter versions if students are just reading them to get the main ideas.

Stories can tell us a lot about the culture that produced them just like making new versions of them can tell us more about the time and culture today. You may wish to encourage students to retell the stories from a modern perspective or to recreate them using video or graphic representations and discuss what insights their versions might give to people viewing them in the future.

There are materials on life in ancient Sumer included in the
Before you read The Epic of Gilgamesh page. If you would like to go more in-depth on this topic and discuss
the early Middle East, more resources are available under a Creative Commons license from ushistory.org as part of their Ancient Civilizations course.
http://www.ushistory.org/civ/4.asp

It would also be appropriate to have students research other creation myths and early stories from other cultures. Greek and Norse stories will be provided later in this course.

Key Terms

Analysis– Determining what the text says and why.

Etymology –
Noun (plural etymologies)

1. (uncountable) The study of the historical development of languages, particularly as manifested in individual words.
2. (countable) An account of the origin and historical development of a word.

Explicit–
Adjective(comparative more explicit,
superlative most explicit)

1. Very specific, clear, or detailed.
2. I gave explicit instructions for him to stay here, but he followed me, anyway.
3. (euphemistic) Containing material (e.g. language or film footage) that might be deemed offensive or graphic.
4. The film had several scenes including explicit
    language and sex.

Implicit–
Adjective(not comparable)

1. Implied indirectly, without being directly expressed
2. Contained in the essential nature of something but not openly shown
3. Having no reservations or doubts; unquestioning or unconditional; usually said of faith or trust.
4. (obsolete) entangled, twisted together.

Inference–
Noun(countable and uncountable, plural inferences)

1. (uncountable) The act or process of inferring by
   deduction or induction.
2. (countable) That which is inferred; a truth or proposition drawn from another which is admitted or supposed to be true; a conclusion; a deduction.

Objectivity–
Noun (countable and uncountable, plural objectivities)

1. The state of being objective, just,
   unbiased and not influenced by emotions or personal prejudices

Setting – Noun (plural settings)

1. The state of being objective, just, unbiased and not influenced by emotions or personal prejudices

Pre-Assessment

You are about to answer a few questions related to some of the standards addressed in this unit. Your answers will help determine what if any additional support may be required.

1. Determining a theme in a particular text often depends on how the details build upon each other throughout the entire work. Identifying these details is what will help you to provide an accurate summary of the work. A theme is generally not something that is stated in the text but something that a reader determines throughout the reading process. (11.4.2.2 and 11.5.2.2)

Choose the response that WOULD NOT help you to identify a text’s theme or central idea:

Select one:

1. Recurring concepts/elements
   No. An author will often use this to help support a particular theme or central idea.
2. Scanning the text to look for key words.
   That’s right. This particular answer would not be of much assistance when determining a theme or central idea since authors rarely come out and state what the theme is.
3. Imagery/Symbolism
   No. An author will often use this to help support a particular theme or central idea.
4. Overall impression after reading
   No. This impression will often assist you in finding support for a particular theme or central idea.

2. When reading a story the author often relies upon the reader to make certain assumptions about details in the story. If a character sees a person that he or she does not like very much the author may tell us details that imply this dislike. Instead of saying, “Thor really hates Frost Giants,” the storyteller might allow the reader to draw that conclusion by saying, “As he spotted the Frost Giant, Thor gripped his hammer tightly and prepared himself for a fight.” (11.4.1.1 and 11.5.1.1)

Allowing the reader to draw his or her own conclusions about details in a story is called:

Select one:

1. Direct Evidence
   No. This might apply to where the author comes out and states exactly what you should think.
2. Inference
   That is correct. That is the process of arriving at a logical conclusion based on the clues in the text.
3. Literal interpretation
   No. While it is up to the reader to interpret what is going on, a literal interpretation is made from something directly stated in the text.
4. Explicit Narration
   No. This might apply to where the author comes out and states exactly what you should think.

3. Which of the following would not be an author choice relating to how a story is developed? (11.4.3.3)

Select one:

1. Rising Action
   No, Rising Action is a key component of how a story is developed. This is what leads up to a story’s climax. We learn a great deal about characters in this phase of a story.
2. Exposition
   No, the Exposition is a key component of how a story is developed. This is where the setting and characters are introduced.
3. Complicating Incident
   No, the Complicating Incident is a key component of how a story is developed. This is the event which causes a story’s conflict and the main motivation for characters.
4. Glossary
   That’s right. While some books (particularly Science Fiction) may include a glossary, it rarely provides details that develop elements of the story.

Introduction

When reading stories it is important to understand the culture which wrote the stories. That can give us a glimpse into why they might tell the types of stories they do. Keep that in mind. Things like climate, environment, population and agriculture all influence the people of those places. When you are trying to determine character motivations or why something is the way it is the reason might very well be from one of those aspects. Consider how some of those details may change if the same type of story was told in another time or place.

In the case of the Babylonians, they were some of the first humans to form a civilization. They were also the first group of humans we know of that had a written form of communication (cuneiform) and a system of laws. One of the oldest stories ever recorded by humans is one that is still very popular among some today. It is called the Gilgamesh Epic (you’ll read some of it later) and it is the very first reference to a disastrous flood that destroyed almost all of mankind (sound familiar?) Since you may need some background information, the Enuma elish is also included so you can get a sense for the religion of the time in that place.

Question time: You don’t have to answer them all but you should read over them and consider them for class or small group discussion…

What do you already know about the development of early human civilization? Where did you learn it and do you feel any kind of connection with our early ancestors? Do you have any questions about how humans developed culture and how their society was structured? How did your social group form and why does it stay together? What kinds of things change the dynamic of your group of friends?

One of the themes of this course will be to analyze how ideas spread and how those ideas can change perception and attitudes.

What is Mesopotamia?
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Mesopotamia is the place between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers (modern day Iraq). Its name comes from the Greek root words mesos (middle) + potamos (river). This is also why the area is often referred to as the Fertile Crescent.

Image Source:
Kassite Babylonia EN by MapMaster Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported, 2.5 Generic, 2.0 Generic and 1.0 Generic license.

This place is thought to be one of the oldest human civilizations and is often referred to as the Cradle of Civilization since there are signs of human settlement going back to 12,000 BCE. (There is still some debate as to whether or not this is the oldest.)

This is where the Babylonian civilization started over 5,000 years ago. Its capital is Babylon. This is where the oldest form of human writing can be found (cuneiform^[2]); and it is here that the story you’ll read in this unit (The Epic of Gilgamesh) was written. As far as we now know, it is the oldest recorded copy of any story humans have told. You will find some similarities in this story with others that you have heard in terms of events and style. We are still telling stories in this format today^[3]. The Epic of Gilgamesh is somewhat fragmented as you can imagine though every effort has been made to make a complete translation.

Many of these place names may not be familiar to you (maybe none of them are); look below for a more modern look at the territory we are talking about here…

Image Source:
Map of Mesopotamiaby Goran tek-en Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.

The countries in this map should look more familiar to you. We are looking at an image of modern day borders of Syria and Iraq superimposed over Mesopotamia. Now that you have got a brief understanding of the place, it is time to dig in.
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Reading: Enuma elish

Unless you are given another version of the text, go to the Electronic Tools and Ancient Near East Archives (ETANA) and
read the Enuma elish (http://etana.org/node/581). If you have difficulty following the story, check out  this article (http://www.ancient.eu/article/225) which provides a summary of the story as well as the same text from the ETANA website.

Chaos Monster and Sun God via Wikimedia Commons / CC0.Black and white crop of full plate scan, from Austen Henry Layard’s ‘Monuments of Nineveh, Second Series’ plate 19/83, London, J. Murray, 1853

Assignment: Importance of the Enuma elish

Now that you have read this version of the Enuma elish it is time to consider what it means. We know that Myths are meant to entertain and explain, but what else? What’s the value of this story on an emerging human civilization? What elements of this story would help a person live in this new kind of society?

After considering those questions and maybe looking over the story again, it is time to document your own conclusions. Find specific passages from the text where specific lessons are stated or inferred; also include some of the behaviors that are a little more uncertain (does the reading not take a stance on certain behaviors that you think it probably should’ve?)

Support your conclusions with references to the story (you may even quote particular passages); thoroughly explain why you have come to that conclusion and what you think it means for people in general. Is there any lesson people should walk away having learned about how to live a good life?

You may also want to discuss how far we have come in the thousands of years since this story was told. Do you think humans are all that different than the ones who told this story?

Options:

• You may choose to write an essay that explains all of this (be sure to include an Introduction; Body and Conclusion.);
• You might want to make a presentation using Google Presentation or Prezi;
• Other idea? If you have some other way you’d like to show your consideration of these questions, suggest them to your teacher for approval.

The Hero

What is the first time you can remember hearing or understanding the word hero? Maybe it is so ingrained in your early experiences that there is no way you can remember. Perhaps you have pictures that pre-date your memories of wearing Batman or Wonder Woman t-shirts. Humans tell stories about heroes. It is just what they do. Perhaps people are born with a need to identify and embellish those qualities because they help us survive our surroundings.

What is a hero? If you ask a dozen different people you may receive a dozen different answers. Typically when writing an essay or learning about something it is recommended that you go to the definition or the source of the material.

The word hero itself is an interesting one…

Etymology:

From Old French heroes, from Latin hērōs
 (“hero”), from Ancient Greek ἥρως (hḗrōs, “demi-god, hero”), from Proto-Indo-European  *ser-(“to watch over, protect”). Related to Latin  servo (“protect”). Replaced Old English
hæleþ.

That may mean something or nothing to you now, but if we look at some of the sources we can begin to understand just how important this is. Demi-god, protect and the Old English word which translates to man or hold are interesting places to start.

Definition:

1. A real or mythical person of great bravery who carries out extraordinary deeds.
2. A role model.
3. The main protagonist in a work of fiction
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Maybe those definitions are not quite as exciting as what you had in your own mind. They are certainly not as exciting as the words from which the word hero derive. So you see, going back to the origins is fun! Now we’ll take a look at the first example we have of a hero that was recorded by humans that we have.

Here is a description for a videothat outlines the importance of the Epic of Gilgamesh:
“This video introduces the earliest work of literature—The Epic of Gilgamesh. Learn how this ancient story still inspires readers and artists today, and how its themes of power and leadership, and friendship still resonate.”

http://www.learner.org/courses/worldlit/gilgamesh/watch/

It’s twenty-six minutes but might help generate some interest for you and help you understand why it’s such an important story. It will also give you a nice summary of the story that will help you understand what you’re reading.

This story also fits perfectly into what we call the Hero’sJourney. It is a format which is still widely used today. You’ll learn more about this after you read.

Bonus Lesson: Did you know that the term Superhero is actually held in joint trademark with DC and Marvel Comics?
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You are not allowed to sell a product that uses this term!

Sumerian Culture
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Life in Sumer

The first writing system. The plow. The sailboat. The first lunar calendar.

These accomplishments and more were the products of the city-states of Sumer, which arose on the floodplains of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in what is now modern-day Iraq. The Sumerians began to build their walled cities and make significant advances beginning around 3500 B.C.E.

Their domination of this region lasted until around 2000 B.C.E, when the Babylonians took control. Sumerian culture and technology did not disappear but were adopted by its conquerors.

Located in what the ancient Greeks called Mesopotamia, which literally means “the land between the rivers,” Sumer was a collection of city-states that occupied the southernmost portion of Mesopotamia. Most were situated along the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, lying just north of the Persian Gulf. The physical environment there has remained relatively the same since about 8000 B.C.E. The landscape is flat and marshy. The ground is primarily made up of sand and silt, with no rock. The climate is very dry, with only about 16.9 centimeters of rain falling per year. Natural vegetation is sparse, and no trees other than palm trees grow there. The rivers overflow their banks in the spring, sometimes violently and destructively. During this process, they deposit a rich layer of silt on the surrounding floodplain.

The Cradle of Civilization

Considering the harsh and forbidding natural environment, how did the first civilization arise in Sumer? Surprisingly, the environment was part of what made civilization possible.

The silt carried by the rivers down from the northern mountains provided rich fertilizer for growing crops when the rivers overflowed. The constant sunshine was also good for crops. But without water, they would have easily dried up and died. Through the leadership of priest-kings, Sumerians organized farmers in each city-state to build extensive irrigation systems of canals and dams. Before long, the desert was blooming with a surplus of barley, dates, and other crops.

This surplus allowed many people to pursue occupations other than farming, while still being able to meet their basic needs. These people became artisans, merchants, and craftspeople. They helped build the cities and increase the wealth of the city-states through trade with neighboring societies.

Sumerians also developed high-quality crafts, evidence of which was found in the royal tombs of Ur, excavated by Sir Leonard Woolley in the 1920s. Trade also helped the Sumerians to secure vital items such as timber from Lebanon and luxury goods such as the semi precious stone lapis lazuli from the Indus River Valley.

This clay plaque (c. 17th century B.C.E.) depicts what some archaeologists believe is the Sumerian goddess Inanna, patron deity of fertility. Makes you wonder who’ll find those Barbie dolls you buried in the backyard.

Because of the surplus grain, the government could grow in size to support numerous officials and priests. It could also pay thousands of workers with barley while they were building canals, city walls, and ziggurats or while they were fighting to defend their city-state or extend its influence over the region. The barley was collected as a tax from the farmers. Farmers were also required to give some time to the government to work on projects. Slaves and hired workers also contributed.

As the government and economy grew in size and complexity, officials and merchants required a sophisticated writing system to record transactions. First came number markings and simple pictograms, the writing system began to incorporate pictures representing a physical object or idea (such as a picture of the sun to represent the sun).

As trade and government activity increased, the writing system began to incorporate more abstract pictograms and phonograms, or symbols representing sounds. These new forms provided greater flexibility and speed in writing. They were adopted by other cultures (such as the Assyrians) who did not even speak Sumerian.

Sumerian Wisdom

The Sumerians wrote on clay tablets, using a reed pen called a stylus. Once dried, these tablets became hard and, fortunately for today’s researchers, endured for millennia in the hot, dry climate.

Thousands of these tablets have been unearthed. Some libraries have even been discovered with over 10,000 of these clay tablets. And although the vast majority of these tablets contain records of goods collected and distributed by the governments and trade transactions, some contain myths, stories, and letters. These documents have provided much information about the culture and history of the Sumerian people.

With their ingenuity, the Sumerian people developed complex irrigation system and a written language. They were the first people to use the plow to lift the silt-laden soil of their crop fields and they invented the sailboat. They were the first people to design a calendar based on the phase of the moon and they developed a numerical system, based on the number 60, that is still used to measure seconds and minutes.

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The fullest surviving version is derived from twelve stone tablets, in the Akkadian language, which were found stored in the famous library at Nineveh of Assyrian King Assurbanipal.

The epic relates the heroic deeds of Gilgamesh, who is the king of Uruk. His father is mortal and his mother is a goddess. Since Gilgamesh is part mortal, he knows he must die one day. However, he longs for immortality, whether through doing great deeds or discovering the secret of eternal life. He roams the earth on this quest and meets Utnapishtim, the only human granted eternal life by the gods. He tells Gilgamesh many stories, including one of a great flood that covered the Earth.

What happens to Gilgamesh? Read the tale and find out. The following is an excerpt from Gilgamesh.

“O man of Shuruppak, son of Ubartutu:

Tear down the house and build a boat!

Abandon wealth and seek living beings!

Spurn possessions and keep alive living beings!

Make all living beings go up into the boat.

The boat which you are to build,

its dimensions must measure equal to each other:

its length must correspond to its width.

Roof it over like the Apsu.”

From Tablet XI — translation by Maureen Gallery Kovacs, 1998

Gilgamesh Timeline

Additional Readings:

Ancient Tablets, Ancient Graves: Access Women’s Lives in Mesopotamia

        http://www.womeninworldhistory.com/lesson2.html

Sumerian Culture

        http://history-world.org/sumerian_culture.htm

Study Questions for The Epic of Gilgamesh
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Please write out your answers to the questions that follow and/or take notes on the relevant areas in the text, The Epic of Gilgamesh. It is best to get into the habit of doing this while reading. You should complete this exercise after you have read and highlighted, or noted, areas of the text that you think are important. The purpose of this exercise is to help you follow the story’s intent and to think critically about its teachings. Below are a list of questions that, once answered, will ensure that you have a good outline of the story’s purpose and an in-depth understanding of its historical importance.

Context:

The Epic of Gilgamesh is a Sumerian epic poem that dates back to the 3rd millennium BCE. It is one of the earliest known pieces of written literature in the world. Even though this text was unknown to the modern world until 1853, when it was discovered by Hormuzd Rassam, the poem was extremely popular in ancient times and knowledge of it extended throughout Asia and Europe. Its influence can be traced through many texts throughout history, including the Homeric epics—The Iliad and The Odyssey—and the Bible. The main similarities between The Epic of Gilgamesh and the Homeric epics are in the personalities and characters of heroes and gods, and how their interactions are depicted. The most remarkable parallels between The Epic of Gilgamesh and the Bible are in the Old Testament, particularly the narratives of the flood and the Garden of Eden.

The epic seems to be rooted in history, though many of its incidents are legendary. Gilgamesh was an historical king of Uruk in Babylonia, on the River Euphrates in modern Iraq, who lived about 270 BCE. According to the official Sumerian list of kings, he reigned for 126 years. The stories and myths of his life from what we know as The Epic of Gilgamesh. A 1st millennium B.C. catalogue of Cuneiform literature named a scribe, Sin-Leqi-Unini, as the author of the poem; however, modern scholars generally agree that Sin-Leqi Unini, who most likely lived in Uruk in the Middle Babylonian period (160-100 B.C.), was simply an editor trying to record a definitive version of this oral story. Accordingly, the text is generally regarded as anonymous.

Note on Language:

In the form you are reading it, the poem is actually a composite of a number of stories from clay tablets found at a variety of sites in Mesopotamia. The most complete version existing today is preserved on 12 clay tablets from the library collection of 7th-century BCE Assyrian king Ashurbanipal, but where the text is disconnected, scholars have used alternate additional fragments to fill in the gaps. Thus, there are alternate versions of the text in existence.

Sometimes this epic poem can be a very difficult reading to understand; there are allegories, metaphors, symbols, and epithets, and the language is often obscure.

Questions:

1. In the prologue, Gilgamesh is portrayed as a king-tyrant, but later he becomes a king-hero. According to this, how was a king supposed to behave in Sumerian culture?

2. Based on the presentation of Gilgamesh, how would you define the concept of heroism in Sumerian culture?

3. How would you describe the political organization of the city of Uruk?

4. How are the gods described in the poem? What is their function? How do they intervene in human affairs?

5. In the story, it is emphasized that Gilgamesh is a demigod. Why include this emphasis of his partial divinity? How does it affect his character?

6. What roles do women play in the story? What do their representations suggest about the significance of women in this ancient culture?

7. How is nature depicted? Is the setting of the epic a safe and peaceful place, or dangerous and chaotic?

8. Why does the flood happen? Why is Utnapishtim saved?

9. As Gilgamesh’s “equal” or “second self,” how does Enkidu represent the other side of Gilgamesh?

10. Why does Gilgamesh want to find immortality?

11. How is death regarded in the epic? How do humans come to terms with death?

12. What is the purpose of this story?

Guide to Responding

Study Guide for The Epic of Gilgamesh
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Main Point Summary/Background:

The Epic of Gilgamesh is more than a story of adventure; it is a meditation on what it means to be human. It reflects humans’ will to understand the meaning of life and to reconcile with mortality. The poem also contains exquisite observations on the life and conduct of the people who lived in the land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in the second and third millennium BCE. It tells us about their understanding of kingship, heroism, love, friendship, nature, fate, life, and death.

Note that scholars still argue today over what are the correct original words used in many passages, and sometimes even which is the correct passage due to the fragmentary nature of the text. Scholars also differ as to the meaning and purpose of the epic. Thus, just remember that his text is still not completely understood today.

The Epic of Gilgamesh is considered the most famous of the Babylonian literary works after being translated from Sumerian into Akkadian—the official language of the Babylonians.

Instructions:

Below are excerpts from the reading that help to answer the study questions. Review these answers after you have completed the study questions. Highlighting or taking notes while you read paired with later outlining and paraphrasing is an excellent method to ensure comprehension and retention of difficult material.

1. Firstly, remember that Gilgamesh was an actual king, who ruled the Sumerian city Uruk around 270 BCE. Subsequently, even if the epic is nothing but an exaggerated story of the exploits of Gilgamesh, it still tells us a lot about Sumerian civilization and Sumerians’ understanding of kingship.

Gilgamesh is predestined to become the king of Uruk from birth: “You were given kingship, such was your destiny, everlasting life was not your destiny.” However, from the very beginning of the narration, we learn that he is not a “shepherd” king. He does not show compassion for his subjects. He does not value human life. Very often he goes on a rampage, killing and raping. In fact, such is his cruelty that he gods created Enkidu to tame Gilgamesh: “Let him contend together and leave Uruk in quiet.”

However, during his journey, Gilgamesh matures as a human and as a king. He learns the value on human life and compassion. By tablet XI, Gilgamesh final comes to terms with his life and role in history. Gilgamesh turns his attention away from his personal desires to the welfare of Uruk. He wishes to rule over the city and its inhabitants with wisdom and care.

2. It is clear from the very beginning of the narrative that Gilgamesh does not fit our modern day concept of a hero; in fact, on many occasions, his acts are rather unheroic. Still, Gilgamesh is an ancient epic hero, and subsequently he shares characteristics with other ancient epic heroes, such as Achilles in the Iliad. Like many other epic heroes, Gilgamesh is different from “normal” humans.

He is neither entirely human nor entirely god. He is blessed by the gods and revered by humans. Stronger than anyone he has ever known, he is destined for fame and glory from birth. As his fellow epic heroes, Gilgamesh makes a journey, in which he faces and overcomes impossible or nearly impossible tests. In this journey, he does not obtain what he is looking for, but he gains something of higher value—spiritual knowledge.

3. The poem contains numerous observations on the political life and conduct of the people who lived in Uruk in the second and third millennium BCE. For starters, we know that his great walled city was ruled by a king. As a king, Gilgamesh ruled with absolute power, from when he was a cruel, unsuccessful monarch to when he becomes a wise one.

The life of the inhabitants of Uruk is a hard one, subjected to the sometimes cruel whimsies of their rulers and their gods. Remember that the gods created Enkidu to appease the people of Uruk: “Let him contend together and leave Uruk in quiet.”

The city must have attracted people from nearby and faraway lands, which is supported by the mention in the epic of citywide celebrations. In ancient civilizations, public celebrations had religious and political/military significance. Performances, used as religious and political propaganda, are a sign of a complex and well-organized civilization.

4. There is a large number of Sumerian gods mentioned in
The Epic of Gilgamesh: Anu, the father of the gods; Aruru, the gods who made Enkidu; Ishtar, the goddess of love; and Shamash, the sun god; among many others.

Even though Anu is the father of the gods and subsequently the most powerful of all of them, there is not a clear hierarchical organization of his fellow divinities. The gods of this epic tale are anthropomorphic deities who express human characteristics such as jealousy, hatred, and love.

According to the epic, the gods created humanity: “When the gods created man they allotted to him death, but life they retained in their own keeping.” The main role of the gods in the epic is to control their creation; they rule all that in nature that is beyond human control: weather, fertility, love, life, and death. Humans are utterly at the mercy of gods and their whimsical decisions. In the epic, dreams tend to be the vehicle of communication between gods and humans.

5. Already in the prologue, we learn that Gilgamesh is two-thirds god and one-third man. Gilgamesh is a hero of superhuman strength. Many of his attributes resemble those of the gods; however, he is flawed by being mortal. This conflict between his divinity and humanity sparks his quest for immortality. In the very beginning of the story, Gilgamesh believes himself to be above humans, and the gods have to intercede against him on behalf of the people of Uruk. It is only at the very end of the story that Gilgamesh identifies himself as a human and finally accepts his own mortality.

6. Sumerian society was of patriarchal nature; however, women had extensive rights and played important roles in society. Thus, even though the main characters of the epic are men—Gilgamesh and Enkidu—women play tangential but rather important roles.

In the divine sphere, goddesses such as Ishtar, may not have been as powerful as some of their male counterparts, as for example god Anu; however, they are represented as powerful women, who act with the confidence and decisiveness of their fellow male gods. Ishtar—the goddess of love—is able not only to manipulate men at her will, but also other gods. According to the text, she is the one who, angered by Gilgamesh’s rejection to her marriage proposal, convinces the gods to decide that Enkidu, Gilgamesh’s companion and best friend, must die.

In the human realm, numerous and very important women come to become part of the story. There is Shamhat, the temple prostitute who civilizes Enkidu and brings the friends together; Ninsun, Gilgamesh’s wise mother; Siduri, the philosophical barmaid, again, a wise female figure; and Utnapishtim’s wife, who intercedes on Gilgamesh’s behalf. The obvious role of women in The Epic of Gilgamesh is that of companions. A clear example is Ninsun, Gilgamesh’s mother, who acts as his confidant and advisor. Shamhat, the temple prostitute, represents women’s power to civilize men. By using her “sex appeal,” she seduces Enkidu and tames him. Thus, although women play supporting roles in The Epic of Gilgamesh, their power comes from the fact that he can significantly influence men.

7. Mesopotamia seasonally suffered severe drought and violent floods; nature was uncertain and chaotic. In the epic, the Bull of Heaven, which goddess Ishtar sent to punish Gilgamesh, symbolically represents drought. The flood symbolizes a force of destruction but also rebirth—similar to the story of the Noah’s great flood. Nature (wilderness) is also inhabited by monsters, such as Humbaba, the guardian monster of the cedar forest. Evidently, Sumerians feared nature, because they could not explain natural phenomena and subsequently could not control it or predict it.

8. In the epic, Utnapishtim tells Gilgamesh that the flood is sent by the gods, who unable to sleep for the uproar raised by mankind, agree to destroy humanity. Like the narrative of Noah in the Bible, the flood in the Epic of Gilgamesh is a story of punishment and destruction by divine hands, which leads to renewal. Like Noah, Utnapishtim is saved because of his faith and obedience. Ea, the god of water, instructs Utnapishtim to build a boat and “take up into [it] the seed of all living creatures,” and he does so. As Noah, Utnapishtim is a symbol of god’s mercy.

9. To understand how Enkidu represents Gilgamesh’s “equal” or “second self,” we first need to understand his nature. The poem tells us that Enkidu is created by the gods as a match for Gilgamesh to appease the people of Uruk and to harness Gilgamesh’s terrible energy. Enkidu would serve as a friend who would set him on the path of heroic deeds. When analyzing Gilgamesh’s dreams, his mother Ninsun tells him: “My son, the axe you saw is a friend and I, Ninsun, I shall make him your equal. A mighty comrade will come to you, and be his friend’s saviour.”

In fact, Enkidu is equal to Gilgamesh in strength and bravery. He has a hybrid body strong enough to oppose him. “‘What an enormous man!’ [the townspeople] whispered. ‘How much like Gilgamesh.’” Enkidu animal characteristics make him uncivilized and subsequently not subjected to social norms. Because he is not civilized and does not belong in society, he does not have to follow King Gilgamesh’s commands, and thus, on many occasions he is able to work as Gilgamesh’s conscience, or second-self. For example, Enkidu prevents Gilgamesh from entering the house of a bride and bridegroom.

10. Already in the prologue, we learn that Gilgamesh is two-thirds god and one-third man. Gilgamesh is a hero of superhuman strength. Many of his attributes resemble those of the gods; however, he is flawed by being mortal. This conflict between his divinity and humanity sparks his quest for immortality in which he searches for a way to become a god and leave behind his flawed human/mortal body.

Even though Gilgamesh does not achieve his goal of everlasting life, the text provides answers as to what constitutes immortality for humans: civilization and fame. As the walls of the city of Uruk stood for centuries, reminding humans of this once powerful and cultured Sumerian civilization, the epic attested to the immortality of Gilgamesh’s name.

11. In this epic, death is represented as something that every human must face. Even Gilgamesh, who is two-thirds god and one-third man, is mortal and subsequently he must experience death. “All living creatures born of the flesh shall sit at last in the boat of the West, and when it sinks, when the boat of Magilum sinks, they are gone.”

When Enkidu and Gilgamesh undertake their journey into the forest to confront Humbaba, they encourage each other to face death courageously. Gilgamesh is able to overcome his fear of mortality by understanding the immortality of his name: “I will go to the country where the cedar is filed. I will set up my name in the place where the names of famous men are written.” Thus, this spiritual journey teaches Gilgamesh the meaning of humanity and mortality. At the end, Gilgamesh understands that life without death would be meaningless.

12. The Epic of Gilgamesh is a timeless tale of man’s search for immortality. This moving narrative leads its audience to explore what it means to be human and what is the nature of civilization.

Hero’s Journey Notes

Gilgamesh’s Hero’s Journey

Gilgamesh’s Hero’s Journey

Gilgamesh is the first hero we know of. Many have been told about since. They all fit a similar pattern. After viewing the video, answer the questions. https://youtu.be/x0m9oM5rpVc

How does Gilgamesh fit this pattern? Explain his journey along the hero’s path in your submission below. Make sure you focus on the following areas:

1. Extraordinary Birth;
2. Call to Action;
3. Avoidance of the Call;
4. Guardian/Guide;
5. Threshold;
6. Trials;
7. Decisive Victory;
8. Return.

This essay/presentation must be thorough and explain each stage with examples from the story. You should also include your own commentary about how well you think that stage fits a particular area. Feel free to include images that help identify your stage or part of the story.

Include support for why you think Gilgamesh was a hero or not. Also, what type of qualities do you think might be added to this list to identify heroes?

Record your answer with text, presentation or video.

The Flood Narrative

Pretty much everyone has heard the story of Noah’s Ark. There’s a lot more behind the flood story than you may realize. Did you know that many other cultures have told a similar story and that some of them were even older than the account given in Genesis from the Bible? (Of course you did, you just read The Gilgamesh Epic!)

Here’s a quick comparison of the flood narratives of Genesis (Noah), the Gilgamesh Epic (Utnapishtim) and the one from Greek Mythology (Deucalion):

Keep in mind that these are not the only Flood Narratives. What possible conclusions can you draw about the table above and the fact that this story seems to be told in more than one culture?

Discuss this with others and see if your conclusions match what others might think.

What we think of as a global catastrophe is much different than what would have been considered a global catastrophe in the past. We have more of a connection now to other places and cultures through the internet and social media. We also have around seven billion people on the planet; in 1960 there were only three billion. Imagine how few people were around thousands of years ago. The place in which you lived would have been your entire world. If something bad happened there your whole culture may have been wiped out.

Next, we will take a closer look at the other two flood narratives mentioned in the preceding chart.

About the early Hebrews

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Empires rose and empires fell. The Babylonians, the Assyrians, and the Persians accumulated immense wealth and power that allowed them to build capital cities of striking beauty.

But their cities and palaces eventually fell into decay and were covered by thousands of years of sand and dust.

One of their relatively powerless contemporary groups outlived those great empires. These people were the Hebrews, known also as Israelites or, later, Jews.

Their early contribution to humankind was not wealthy empires or groundbreaking technology. Rather, it was the revolutionary idea that there was only one god, a belief known as monotheism. This one Hebrew god was called Yahweh. To the Hebrews, Yahweh was all powerful and all knowing, yet beyond human understanding. The religion based around this god influenced the founding of Christianity and Islam. (Editor’s note: What follows is the Hebrew account of their early history.)

Abraham and the Torah

In the years after David and Solomon ruled, the kingdom of the Hebrews was divided into two separate lands, Israel and Judah.

The history of the early Hebrews is known primarily from one of their sacred texts, the Torah, which comprises the first five books of the Old Testament of the Bible. According to the Torah, Abraham is the ancestral patriarch of the Hebrew people.

Abraham was born in the Sumerian city of Ur. After Abraham’s father died, Yahweh visited Abraham and instructed him to smash the idols of his father’s gods, to worship the one and only true god, Yahweh, and to move his family to Canaan. Yahweh promised Abraham that if he followed these laws, he would found a great nation that would live in a land flowing with milk and honey.

This land, known as Canaan in ancient times, is roughly located in the same place as modern-day Israel.

Abraham’s migration took place some time between 2000 B.C.E. and 1700 B.C.E. It occurred at a time when the Canaanites lived in relatively small, independently governed, walled cities. They were accustomed to outsiders coming into their territory. The Hebrews, who were nomadic herders, were tolerated by the Canaanites.

The land that Abraham and his followers found did not flow so easily with milk and honey. The dry climate and rough environment required considerable effort to survive. Drought forced Abraham and his family to move to Egypt.

The Twelve Tribes

The Torah tells how Abraham had two sons: Isaac by his wife Sarah, and Ishmael by his concubine Hagar. The Hebrews trace their heritage through Isaac. Isaac had a son Jacob, who in turn had 12 sons. These sons became the leaders of the 12 tribes of Israel. Jacob’s most beloved son, Joseph, was sold into slavery by his jealous brothers. While in captivity, Joseph rose to be the Egyptian pharaoh’s chief minister of the land.

When a severe drought plagued Canaan, his same brothers came to Egypt, begging for grain. Ignoring their past mistreatment of him, Joseph gave them grain and convinced them to stay in Egypt.

There, the Hebrews prospered and became a great nation. They became so numerous, that a pharaoh “who did not know Joseph” enslaved the Hebrews. This pharaoh is believed to be Ramses II (1290-1224 B.C.E.)

The Exodus to Canaan

The Torah then recounts the story of Moses, who led the Hebrews out of Egypt and slavery. This event, known as the Exodus, most likely occurred during the reign of the pharaoh Merneptah, between 1224 and 1211 B.C.E. Archaeologists have found an Egyptian document written on papyrus from this time period that describes Jews being forced to leave, further authenticating this story. After what the Hebrews believed were a series of acts by Yahweh on their behalf, including various plagues on the Egyptians and their crops and livestock, Moses led his people out of Egypt. The Egyptian Exodus lasted approximately from 1600 to 1200 B.C.E.

According to the Old Testament, the Hebrews wandered in the desert of the Sinai Peninsula (which is between Egypt and Canaan) for 40 years. Moses received the Ten Commandments during this time, which outlined some basic laws governing behavior. He also struggled to keep his people from worshiping gods other than Yahweh. Moses died before he could enter Canaan.

Joshua led the Hebrews back into Canaan, where they settled among the Canaanites and the Philistines. The Old Testament tells of Joshua’s victorious battles against these people. Archaeologists have found that a number of towns were destroyed around this time. But, they do not agree as to whether such destruction was the work of the Hebrews or others. Over time, the Hebrews began to learn the ways of the Canaanites and settled down to a life of farming and herding.

In 722 B.C.E., the northern half of Hebrew lands known as Israel was invaded and mostly destroyed by the Assyrians. The southern half, known as Judea, survived until around 597 B.C.E., when the Babylonians defeated the Judeans and carried most of them back as captives to Babylon.

During their captivity in Babylon, Hebrew scribes recorded the history of their people and their relationship with their god Yahweh. After 539 B.C.E., the Persians under Cyrus II conquered Babylon. He allowed the Hebrews to return to their holy city of Jerusalem. But, the Hebrews continued to fall under the domination of other empires. In 70 C.E., the Romans destroyed Jerusalem and sent most of the Jews into an exile that lasted until the 20th century.

About the King James Version of the Bible

This is an English translation of the Christian Bible for the Church of England completed in 1611. 47 scholars translated the work from the Greek, Hebrew and Aramaic texts. This translation was selected for the course for a few reasons; it sounds more poetic than other translations even though it may not be as literal a translation as some others from the source material and this one is in the Public Domain, so it is free!

Creation Story

Genesis 1

1:
 In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth.

2:
And the earth was without form, and void; and darkness was upon the face of the deep. And the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters.

3:
And God said, Let there be light: and there was light.

4:
And God saw the light, that it was good: and God divided the light from the darkness.

5:
And God called the light Day, and the darkness he called Night. And the evening and the morning were the first day.

6:
And God said, Let there be a firmament in the midst of the waters, and let it divide the waters from the waters.

7:
And God made the firmament, and divided the waters which were under the firmament from the waters which were above the firmament: and it was so.

8:
And God called the firmament Heaven. And the evening and the morning were the second day.

9:
And God said, Let the waters under the heaven be gathered together unto one place, and let the dry land appear: and it was so.

10:
And God called the dry land Earth; and the gathering together of the waters called he Seas: and God saw that it was good.

11:
And God said, Let the earth bring forth grass, the herb yielding seed, and the fruit tree yielding fruit after his kind, whose seed is in itself, upon the earth: and it was so.

12:
And the earth brought forth grass, and herb yielding seed after his kind, and the tree yielding fruit, whose seed was in itself, after his kind: and God saw that it was good.

13:
And the evening and the morning were the third day.

14:
And God said, Let there be lights in the firmament of the heaven to divide the day from the night; and let them be for signs, and for seasons, and for days, and years:

15:
And let them be for lights in the firmament of the heaven to give light upon the earth: and it was so.

16:
And God made two great lights; the greater light to rule the day, and the lesser light to rule the night: he made the stars also.

17:
And God set them in the firmament of the heaven to give light upon the earth,

18:
And to rule over the day and over the night, and to divide the light from the darkness: and God saw that it was good.

19:
And the evening and the morning were the fourth day.

20:
And God said, Let the waters bring forth abundantly the moving creature that hath life, and fowl that may fly above the earth in the open firmament of heaven.

21:
And God created great whales, and every living creature that moveth, which the waters brought forth abundantly, after their kind, and every winged fowl after his kind: and God saw that it was good.

22:
And God blessed them, saying, Be fruitful, and multiply, and fill the waters in the seas, and let fowl multiply in the earth.

23:
And the evening and the morning were the fifth day.

24:
And God said, Let the earth bring forth the living creature after his kind, cattle, and creeping thing, and beast of the earth after his kind: and it was so.

25:
And God made the beast of the earth after his kind, and cattle after their kind, and every thing that creepeth upon the earth after his kind: and God saw that it was good.

26:
And God said, Let us make man in our image, after our likeness: and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth.

27:
So God created man in his own image, in the image of God created he him; male and female created he them.

28:
And God blessed them, and God said unto them, Be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth, and subdue it: and have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over every living thing that moveth upon the earth.

29:
And God said, Behold, I have given you every herb bearing seed, which is upon the face of all the earth, and every tree, in the which is the fruit of a tree yielding seed; to you it shall be for meat.

30:
And to every beast of the earth, and to every fowl of the air, and to every thing that creepeth upon the earth, wherein there is life, I have given every green herb for meat: and it was so.

31:
And God saw every thing that he had made, and, behold, it was very good. And the evening and the morning were the sixth day.

Genesis 2

1:
Thus the heavens and the earth were finished, and all the host of them.

2:
And on the seventh day God ended his work which he had made; and he rested on the seventh day from all his work which he had made.

3:
And God blessed the seventh day, and sanctified it: because that in it he had rested from all his work which God created and made.

4:
These are the generations of the heavens and of the earth when they were created, in the day that the LORD God made the earth and the heavens,

5:
And every plant of the field before it was in the earth, and every herb of the field before it grew: for the LORD God had not caused it to rain upon the earth, and there was not a man to till the ground.

6:
But there went up a mist from the earth, and watered the whole face of the ground.

7:
And the LORD God formed man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living soul.

8:
And the LORD God planted a garden eastward in Eden; and there he put the man whom he had formed.

9:
And out of the ground made the LORD God to grow every tree that is pleasant to the sight, and good for food; the tree of life also in the midst of the garden, and the tree of knowledge of good and evil.

10:
And a river went out of Eden to water the garden; and from thence it was parted, and became into four heads.

11:
The name of the first is Pison: that is it which compasseth the whole land of Havilah, where there is gold;

12:
And the gold of that land is good: there is bdellium and the onyx stone.

13:
And the name of the second river is Gihon: the same is it that compasseth the whole land of Ethiopia.

14:
And the name of the third river is Hiddekel: that is it which goeth toward the east of Assyria. And the fourth river is Euphrates.

15:
And the LORD God took the man, and put him into the garden of Eden to dress it and to keep it.

16:
And the LORD God commanded the man, saying, Of every tree of the garden thou mayest freely eat:

17:
But of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, thou shalt not eat of it: for in the day that thou eatest thereof thou shalt surely die.

18:
And the LORD God said, It is not good that the man should be alone; I will make him an help meet for him.

19:
And out of the ground the LORD God formed every beast of the field, and every fowl of the air; and brought them unto Adam to see what he would call them: and whatsoever Adam called every living creature, that was the name thereof.

20:
And Adam gave names to all cattle, and to the fowl of the air, and to every beast of the field; but for Adam there was not found an help meet for him.

21:
And the LORD God caused a deep sleep to fall upon Adam and he slept: and he took one of his ribs, and closed up the flesh instead thereof;

22:
And the rib, which the LORD God had taken from man, made he a woman, and brought her unto the man.

23:
And Adam said, This is now bone of my bones, and flesh of my flesh: she shall be called Woman, because she was taken out of Man.

24:
Therefore shall a man leave his father and his mother, and shall cleave unto his wife: and they shall be one flesh.

25:
And they were both naked, the man and his wife, and were not ashamed.

The Flood

Genesis 6

1:
And it came to pass, when men began to multiply on the face of the earth, and daughters were born unto them,

2:
That the sons of God saw the daughters of men that they were fair; and they took them wives of all which they chose.

3:
And the LORD said, My spirit shall not always strive with man, for that he also is flesh: yet his days shall be an hundred and twenty years.

4:
There were giants in the earth in those days; and also after that, when the sons of God came in unto the daughters of men, and they bare children to them, the same became mighty men which were of old, men of renown.

5:
And GOD saw that the wickedness of man was great in the earth, and that every imagination of the thoughts of his heart was only evil continually.

6:
And it repented the LORD that he had made man on the earth, and it grieved him at his heart.

7:
And the LORD said, I will destroy man whom I have created from the face of the earth; both man, and beast, and the creeping thing, and the fowls of the air; for it repenteth me that I have made them.

8:
But Noah found grace in the eyes of the LORD.

9:
These are the generations of Noah: Noah was a just man and perfect in his generations, and Noah walked with God.

10:
 And Noah begat three sons, Shem, Ham, and Japheth.

11:
The earth also was corrupt before God, and the earth was filled with violence.

12:
And God looked upon the earth, and, behold, it was corrupt; for all flesh had corrupted his way upon the earth.

13:
And God said unto Noah, The end of all flesh is come before me; for the earth is filled with violence through them; and, behold, I will destroy them with the earth.

14:
Make thee an ark of gopher wood; rooms shalt thou make in the ark, and shalt pitch it within and without with pitch.

15:
And this is the fashion which thou shalt make it of: The length of the ark shall be three hundred cubits, the breadth of it fifty cubits, and the height of it thirty cubits.

16:
A window shalt thou make to the ark, and in a cubit shalt thou finish it above; and the door of the ark shalt thou set in the side thereof; with lower, second, and third stories shalt thou make it.

17:
And, behold, I, even I, do bring a flood of waters upon the earth, to destroy all flesh, wherein is the breath of life, from under heaven; and every thing that is in the earth shall die.

18:
But with thee will I establish my covenant; and thou shalt come into the ark, thou, and thy sons, and thy wife, and thy sons’ wives with thee.

19:
And of every living thing of all flesh, two of every sort shalt thou bring into the ark, to keep them alive with thee; they shall be male and female.

20:
Of fowls after their kind, and of cattle after their kind, of every creeping thing of the earth after his kind, two of every sort shall come unto thee, to keep them alive.

21:
And take thou unto thee of all food that is eaten, and thou shalt gather it to thee; and it shall be for food for thee, and for them.

22:
Thus did Noah; according to all that God commanded him, so did he.

Genesis 7

1:
And the LORD said unto Noah, Come thou and all thy house into the ark; for thee have I seen righteous before me in this generation.
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2:
Of every clean beast thou shalt take to thee by sevens, the male and his female: and of beasts that are not clean by two, the male and his female.

3:
Of fowls also of the air by sevens, the male and the female; to keep seed alive upon the face of all the earth.

4:
For yet seven days, and I will cause it to rain upon the earth forty days and forty nights; and every living substance that I have made will I destroy from off the face of the earth.

5:
And Noah did according unto all that the LORD commanded him.

6:
And Noah was six hundred years old when the flood of waters was upon the earth.

7:
And Noah went in, and his sons, and his wife, and his sons’ wives with him, into the ark, because of the waters of the flood.

8:
Of clean beasts, and of beasts that are not clean, and of fowls, and of every thing that creepeth upon the earth,

9:
There went in two and two unto Noah into the ark, the male and the female, as God had commanded Noah.

10:
And it came to pass after seven days, that the waters of the flood were upon the earth.

11:
In the six hundredth year of Noah’s life, in the second month, the seventeenth day of the month, the same day were all the fountains of the great deep broken up, and the windows of heaven were opened.

12:
And the rain was upon the earth forty days and forty nights.

13:
In the selfsame day entered Noah, and Shem, and Ham, and Japheth, the sons of Noah, and Noah’s wife, and the three wives of his sons with them, into the ark;

14:
They, and every beast after his kind, and all the cattle after their kind, and every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth after his kind, and every fowl after his kind, every bird of every sort.

15:
And they went in unto Noah into the ark, two and two of all flesh, wherein is the breath of life.

16:
And they that went in, went in male and female of all flesh, as God had commanded him: and the LORD shut him in.

17:
And the flood was forty days upon the earth; and the waters increased, and bare up the ark, and it was lift up above the earth.

18:
And the waters prevailed, and were increased greatly upon the earth; and the ark went upon the face of the waters.

19:
And the waters prevailed exceedingly upon the earth; and all the high hills, that were under the whole heaven, were covered.

20:
Fifteen cubits upward did the waters prevail; and the mountains were covered.

21:
And all flesh died that moved upon the earth, both of fowl, and of cattle, and of beast, and of every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth, and every man:

22:
All in whose nostrils was the breath of life, of all that was in the dry land, died.

23:
And every living substance was destroyed which was upon the face of the ground, both man, and cattle, and the creeping things, and the fowl of the heaven; and they were destroyed from the earth: and Noah only remained alive, and they that were with him in the ark.

24:
And the waters prevailed upon the earth an hundred and fifty days.

Genesis 8

1:
And God remembered Noah, and every living thing, and all the cattle that was with him in the ark: and God made a wind to pass over the earth, and the waters assuaged;

2:
The fountains also of the deep and the windows of heaven were stopped, and the rain from heaven was restrained;

3:
And the waters returned from off the earth continually: and after the end of the hundred and fifty days the waters were abated.

4:
And the ark rested in the seventh month, on the seventeenth day of the month, upon the mountains of Ararat.

5:
And the waters decreased continually until the tenth month: in the tenth month, on the first day of the month, were the tops of the mountains seen.

6:
And it came to pass at the end of forty days, that Noah opened the window of the ark which he had made:

7:
And he sent forth a raven, which went forth to and fro, until the waters were dried up from off the earth.

8:
Also he sent forth a dove from him, to see if the waters were abated from off the face of the ground;

9:
But the dove found no rest for the sole of her foot, and she returned unto him into the ark, for the waters were on the face of the whole earth: then he put forth his hand, and took her, and pulled her in unto him into the ark.

10:
And he stayed yet other seven days; and again he sent forth the dove out of the ark;

11:
And the dove came in to him in the evening; and, lo, in her mouth was an olive leaf pluckt off: so Noah knew that the waters were abated from off the earth.

12:
And he stayed yet other seven days; and sent forth the dove; which returned not again unto him any more.

13:
And it came to pass in the six hundredth and first year, in the first month, the first day of the month, the waters were dried up from off the earth: and Noah removed the covering of the ark, and looked, and, behold, the face of the ground was dry.

14:
And in the second month, on the seven and twentieth day of the month, was the earth dried.

15:
And God spake unto Noah, saying,

16:
Go forth of the ark, thou, and thy wife, and thy sons, and thy sons’ wives with thee.

17:
Bring forth with thee every living thing that is with thee, of all flesh, both of fowl, and of cattle, and of every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth; that they may breed abundantly in the earth, and be fruitful, and multiply upon the earth.

18:
And Noah went forth, and his sons, and his wife, and his sons’ wives with him:

19:
Every beast, every creeping thing, and every fowl, and whatsoever creepeth upon the earth, after their kinds, went forth out of the ark.
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20:
And Noah builded an altar unto the LORD; and took of every clean beast, and of every clean fowl, and offered burnt offerings on the altar.

21:
And the LORD smelled a sweet savour; and the LORD said in his heart, I will not again curse the ground any more for man’s sake; for the imagination of man’s heart is evil from his youth; neither will I again smite any more every thing living, as I have done.

22:
While the earth remaineth, seedtime and harvest, and cold and heat, and summer and winter, and day and night shall not cease.

Ancient Greece
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The glorification of the human form and of human accomplishment defined ancient Greek art, philosophy, literature, and religion. Even their gods were created in the image of humans. The Greek gods had human emotions, looked like humans, and behaved more like people than infallible gods.

The Greeks’ emphasis on the individual is one major cornerstone of Western Civilization. Indeed, the spirit of individualism as defined by the Greeks is still alive and well in modern American culture and society.

The Greeks were the first in the West to experiment with the concept of democratic government. Many successful modern democratic governments in the world today are heirs to the Greek model. It must be pointed out that though the Greeks developed the notion of “government by the people,” most people were still excluded from the political process.

The First Greeks

Two major groups of people, the Minoans and the Mycenaeans, were the first to populate the Greek peninsula. Not much is known about either of these groups because they did not leave an abundance of written or physical evidence to provide clues about their civilization. However, it is known that by 1650 B.C.E., the Minoans occupied the island of Crete that is south of the Greek mainland. The Minoans were named for the legendary ruler of Crete, King Minos. Historians believe that the Minoans were seafaring traders who developed a rich, diverse culture.

The Mycenaeans came from a group of people who migrated from India through the Middle East and into Greece around the year 2000 B.C.E. These Indo-Europeans mixed with the native population of Greece to become the Mycenaeans. Over time, both the Minoans and Mycenaeans expanded and conquered territory until the two civilizations ran into one another.

Historians suspect that in the ensuing conflict the Mycenaeans wiped out the Minoans, whose civilization and culture disappeared somewhat mysteriously. By 1200 B.C.E., the Mycenaeans were in turn wiped out by another group known as the Dorians. This ushered in a Dark Age that lasted from 1150 to 800 B.C.E. During this time, economic activity ground to a halt, and literacy disappeared. Not much is known about this period in Greek history.

But a highly developed civilization resurfaced. From politics and philosophy to art, medicine, and science, the ancient Greeks generated thoughts that shaped the record of humankind for the next 2,500 years.

About the Gods, Goddesses, and Heroes

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The ancients Greeks were polytheistic — that is, they worshipped many gods. Their major gods and goddesses lived at the top of Mount Olympus, the highest mountain in Greece, and myths described their lives and actions. In myths, gods often actively intervened in the day-to-day lives of humans. Myths were used to help explain the unknown and sometimes teach a lesson.

For example, Zeus, the king of the gods, carried his favorite weapon, the thunderbolt. When it rained and there was thunder and lightning, the ancient Greeks believed that Zeus was venting his anger.

Many stories about how the Greek gods behaved and interacted with humans are found in the works of Homer. He created two epic poems: the Iliad, which related the events of the Trojan War, and the Odyssey, which detailed the travels of the hero Odysseus. These two poems were passed down orally over many generations.

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Aphrodite, the goddess of love, sits with the war god, Ares in this painting by the Renaissance artist Botticelli. Aphrodite is one of several Greek goddesses, and is often referred to by her Roman name, Venus.

In addition to Zeus and Hera, there were many other major and minor gods in the Greek religion. At her birth, Athena, the goddess of wisdom, sprang directly from the head of Zeus. Hermes, who had winged feet, was the messenger of the gods and could fly anywhere with great speed. Aphrodite, the goddess of love, was the most beautiful being in the universe. Her brother, Ares, the god of war, was sinister, mean, and disliked. Poseidon, ruled the sea from his underwater palace and Apollo rode his chariot across the sky, bringing the sun with him.

Hades was in charge of the dead in the underworld. Almost all people went to Hades after they died whether they were good or bad. To get there, the dead had to cross the river Styx. Charon was the name of the boatman who ferried the souls of the dead across the river Styx to Hades.

Typically, the gods punished those who were bad. For example, Tantalus who killed his own son and served him to the gods for dinner was sent to Hades and made forever thirsty and hungry. Although there was a pool of clear, fresh drinking water at his feet, whenever Tantalus bent down to drink, the pool would dry up and disappear.

Likewise, over his head hung the most delicious fruit. However, whenever Tantalus reached for them, a wind would blow them just out of his reach. The English word “tantalize” derives from the name Tantalus.

Pandora’s Box and Hercules’ Labors

Myths helped explain how the world came to be the way it was. In one myth, Zeus created an incredibly beautiful and nearly perfect woman named Pandora. Her one flaw was that she was very curious and suspicious. Hermes, Zeus’s messenger, gave Pandora a golden box. He warned her never to open it because terrible things would occur if she did.

But Pandora could hardly contain her curiosity and eventually broke down and opened the special box. Out from the box flew all the evils that plague humanity: famine, greed, pain, sorrow, etc. Only one thing remained in the box — hope — which humans managed to hold on to. This myth explains the origins of human misfortune. At the same time, it teaches a moral lesson by warning of the dangers of curiosity.

In addition to myths about gods, the ancient Greeks also told stories about heroes. One of the most famous Greek heroes was Hercules, the world’s strongest man. Hercules was the illegitimate son of a mortal woman and Zeus, who tricked the woman by disguising himself as the woman’s husband. Hera, Zeus’s wife, was angry about Zeus’ affair and sought to punish Hercules. Hera tricked Hercules into believing that his entire family were dangerous beasts, which Hercules then proceeded to kill. When Hercules realized that he had killed his entire family, he agreed to perform 12 tasks to atone for his terrible actions. For one of the tasks, Hercules had to slay the nine-headed monster called the Hydra.

For another task, he had to clean the filth from Augean stable, which had not been attended to in 30 years. To do this, Hercules diverted the course of a river that washed away the mess. In the end, he completed the so-called 12 Labors of Hercules and made up for the murder of his family.

Greek Human Creation/Flood Myth

Prometheus moulded men out of water and earth and gave them also fire, which, unknown to Zeus, he had hidden in a stalk of fennel. But when Zeus learned of it, he ordered Hephaestus to nail his body to Mount Caucasus, which is a Scythian mountain. On it Prometheus was nailed and kept bound for many years. Every day an eagle swooped on him and devoured the lobes of his liver, which grew by night. That was the penalty that Prometheus paid for the theft of fire until Hercules afterwards released him, as we shall show in dealing with Hercules.

And Prometheus had a son Deucalion. He reigning in the regions about Phthia, married Pyrrha, the daughter of Epimetheus and Pandora, the first woman fashioned by the gods. And when Zeus would destroy the men of the Bronze Age, Deucalion by the advice of Prometheus constructed a chest, and having stored it with provisions he embarked in it with Pyrrha. But Zeus by pouring heavy rain from heaven flooded the greater part of Greece, so that all men were destroyed, except a few who fled to the high mountains in the neighborhood. It was then that the mountains in Thessaly parted, and that all the world outside the Isthmus and Peloponnese was overwhelmed. But Deucalion, floating in the chest over the sea for nine days and as many nights, drifted to Parnassus, and there, when the rain ceased, he landed and sacrificed to Zeus, the god of Escape. And Zeus sent Hermes to him and allowed him to choose what he would, and he chose to get men. And at the bidding of Zeus he took up stones and threw them over his head, and the stones which Deucalion threw became men, and the stones which Pyrrha threw became women. Hence people were called metaphorically people (laos) from laas, “a stone.”

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Additional Narratives: Flood Compare and Contrast

Now that you’ve spend some time looking at the three narratives provided in some more detail it is time for you to investigate this phenomenon even further.

As mentioned previously, many cultures in human history tell a story about a catastrophic flood.
There are more listed here: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flood_myths. Your task now is to choose one more of them and compare it to what you’ve learned so far. Use the link to help guide you. Find one that interests you and find the actual story (If you need help finding it ask your teacher. You will be learning more of those skills very soon.) What similarities do you notice? Any major differences?

You can refer to all three already covered in this course while writing your comparison. Why do you think that this particular story has been told in so many cultures?

Essay Questions

Choose one of the following questions and write an essay response (remember, an essay is more than a short paragraph; it must contain an introduction, body, and conclusion). Support your conclusions with actual passages or references to the text.

1. What assumptions can you make about the ancient Babylonians based on your reading of
   The Gilgamesh Epic
   ? What kinds of things were important to them. What kinds of qualities did Gilgamesh possess that the storytellers wanted others to emulate?
2. Every culture seems to tell stories about the topic of immortality. Discuss Gilgamesh’s drive for immortality and the extent to which his motivation might apply to readers today.
3. What does the friendship between Gilgamesh and Enkidu tell you about the character of both men?
4. Gilgamesh does not really get what he wants. In the end, he loses his friend and is unsuccessful in his quest for immortality. He’s still considered a hero by almost every scholar who studies this story. Why? Discuss the idea that someone can fail at accomplishing his or her goals yet still be a hero.

Flood Compare and Contrast

The story of a great flood is found in a number of ancient literary texts (you’ve just seen it in three of them). Compare and contrast the story of the flood as related in the Gilgamesh Epic, Genesis and in Greek Myth. Remember you are highlighting the significance of the similarities and differences in the texts.

It may be helpful if you create aVenn Diagram ^[18]with three overlapping circles to gather your thoughts. When you are finished put your thoughts together into a single response.

Effect of Geography on Stories and Culture (Presentation)

Obviously, someone growing up in Minnesota has a different life experience than someone growing up in southern California. That experience may affect things like sense of humor, beliefs, even the kinds of products people buy. You may even hear stories about people who don’t believe that it is cold enough in the winter to drive a vehicle on a lake and go fishing.

Cultures are largely defined based on the kinds of stories that are passed down from one generation to another. In this assignment you are to develop a presentation in which you take the stories from this unit and describe the role of geography in the stories that are told. How does the landscape of a place influence these stories in particular?

Necessary steps to complete the presentation:

Step 1: Research the geography of the Ancient Middle East (Gilgamesh Epic and Genesis), and Ancient Greece (Story of Deucalion).

Step 2: Determine what elements of the stories depend on the geography of those locations? (Cite thorough evidence from the text based on what it says and what it may imply.)

Step 3: How do those elements translate across time and culture? What value is there in reading stories that were written for a different time/place/people? (Analyze the impact of how these stories are developed. How do these elements relate to the overall story?)

Step 4: Describe how a story containing similar themes told from the perspective of your time and place might differ. (Summarize the stories by stating the themes and how they are developed.)

You may want to create your presentation with something like Prezi or Google Slides; you may even consider creating a presentation in the style of a news report or essay.

Works Cited

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“Ancient Tablets, Ancient Graves: Accessing Women’s Lives in Mesopotamia.” Lesson: Mesopotamia (Women in World History Curriculum). N.p., n.d. Web. 04 Dec. 2014. <http://www.womeninworldhistory.com/lesson2.html>.

C. Charlene. Gilgamesh Timeline. Image. 2014. Bookish Whimsy. Used with Permission.

“Enuma Elish (The Babylonian Epic of Creation).” ETANA. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Sept. 2014.<http://etana.org/node/581>.

Fila, Jon. “Hero’s Journey.” based on Joseph Campbell’s monomyth in Hero with a ThousandFaces. 09 Mar 2011. <youtu.be/x0m9oM5rpVc>

“Gods, Goddesses, and Heroes.” Ushistory.org. Independence Hall Association, n.d. Web. 21

Apr. 2015. <http://www.ushistory.org/civ/5c.asp>.

Kolbe, Winrich, dir. “Darmok.” Writ. Roddenberry, Gene, Menosky, Joe. Star Trek: The Next

Generation. 29 Sep 1991. Television.

“Life in Sumer.” Ushistory.org. Independence Hall Association, n.d. Web. 05 Dec. 2014.<http://www.ushistory.org/civ/4a.asp>.

Mark, Joshua J. “Enuma Elish – The Babylonian Epic of Creation.” Ancient History

Encyclopedia. Ancient History Encyclopedia Limited, 02 Mar. 2011. Web. 29 Sept.

2014. <http://www.ancient.eu/article/225/>.

SparkNotes Editors. “SparkNote on The Epic of Gilgamesh.” SparkNotes.com. SparkNotes

LLC. 2004. Web. 14 Jun. 2012.

“Study Questions and Guide to Responding: The Gilgamesh Epic.” Saylor Academy. N.p., n.d. Web. 03 Dec. 2014. <http://www.saylor.org/courses/hist101/#overview>.

The Holy Bible, King James Version. New York: Oxford Edition: 1769; King James Bible

Online, 2008. <kingjamesbibleonline.org>.

“Sumerian Culture.” Sumerian Culture. N.p., n.d. Web. 05 Dec. 2014.<http://history-world.org/sumerian_culture.htm>.

Unknown. “Epic of Gilgamesh.” www.aina.org. Assyrian International News Agency, 2012.

Web. 17 Jun 2012. <http://www.aina.org/>. USED WITH PERMISSION (see below)

Weigel, James. Cliffsnotes On Mythology. Lincoln, Nebraska: Cliffs Notes, 1974. pp. 25-28