Writing a Research Paper

by April Camden and Beth Marchbanks

A. Determine the Purpose

For many students, when they are asked to write a “research paper,” the first thing that comes to their mind is to “research” as much information on their topic as possible using the minimum number of sources to meet the minimum page length, and just simply copying what those sources say. This thought probably stems from papers in elementary and middle school, when “research” meant finding articles and literally copying them word for word.

However, at the college level, simply finding articles and copying the information contained in them is not what instructors are looking for. Most instructors want a balance of both information and argument, where the student builds an argument and uses sources to support and enhance that argument instead of just giving information taken from sources. This section aims to help you achieve that balance and accurately document and use sources well in order to both build a quality piece of writing and avoid academic dishonesty (plagiarism).

Taking information you find from various sources and recording that information with no real purpose other than to inform your reader is what authors John D. Ramage, John C. Bean, and June Johnson of Writing Arguments: A Rhetoric with Readings term a “data dump.” In essence, your paper says, “Here is all this information I found over my topic dumped into this paper for you to look over.” Instead, you should use the information you find to develop and support a specific purpose, claim with reasons, or thesis statement. This is more in line with what many college instructors expect their students to submit.

When you are first given any type of writing assignment requiring you to research, be it an informative paper, an analysis, a report, or research paper, one of the most important details that is often overlooked by students is the paper’s
purpose. Understanding exactly what your instructor is expecting from you, from the prewriting through your final draft, is key to ensuring you can earn a grade to be proud of. Many instructors have assignment sheets and rubrics that detail how and where points will be earned and/or lost, so if your instructor provides these things, be sure to look at them closely. Ask yourself these questions:

• What type of paper am I being asked to write? (informative, persuasive?)
• What does my instructor expect to see in my final draft? (page length/word count, citations?)
• What skills and knowledge does my instructor expect me to demonstrate, and how do I need to present it?

Knowing the type of paper you are writing and your instructor’s expectations before you begin working on the writing assignment will save you a lot of work during the amount of time you are given to complete the paper. You should look over your assignment as soon as you receive it so that you have time to ask your instructor questions if you need help understanding the purpose. Instructors are happy to help students with sincere questions, but this often requires advance planning on the student’s behalf—and we don’t mean one day before the paper’s due!

B. Be Aware of Your Timeline

Along with understanding your instructor’s expectations, another important factor that is often overlooked and affects your writing is being aware of how much time is needed to devote to the assignment to be successful, and then considering how much time you actually have before the assignment is due. This may seem like a no-brainer, but many students will wait too long to begin their writing projects, only to realize too late that in order to meet the instructor’s expectations in the amount of time they have left, they have far too much work to do in order to complete the assignment with the quality work they are actually capable of. This leads to rushing in order to meet the deadline and turning in an assignment that not only fails to meet the instructor’s expectations, but doesn’t demonstrate the student’s abilities.

C. Choose a Topic

Now that you understand what your instructor expects of your assignment, and how much time you have to complete it, you are ready to choose a topic if one has not been provided for you. If one has been provided for you, stick with it. Don’t write a paper about what isn’t assigned to you.

When choosing a topic, or an aspect of an assigned topic, be sure that you select an issue or subject that you actually care about and are interested in. If you pick a topic that you do not have any interest in, your research and paper will certainly demonstrate that to your reader. On the other hand, if you choose a subject that you are really interested in learning about, or an issue that you feel strongly about, you will be more vested in what you are learning. In turn, your audience may get more out of reading your paper.

D. Complete Initial Research

Let’s be honest: research requires time. Not only do you need to find multiple sources offering various perspectives on your topic, you need to read those sources a minimum of two times: once during the initial research stage, and again once you have focused your topic and developed a thesis statement. You may need to read them again to seek out specific quotes and information to use in your paper. Many students think they can start “researching” the day or night that the paper is due. Don’t make this mistake.

1. Exploring a Topic

Once you have your topic and before you jump into a topic search using your preferred internet browser, you need to begin by asking some initial questions.  These questions will help you begin to focus your research:

• Why are you interested in, or why did you choose this topic?
• What do you already know about this topic?
• What do you want to know, or what do you hope to learn about this topic?

It’s important that you write these answers down — on paper, on purpose. After brainstorming and jotting down some initial answers to the above questions, reading through your answers will help you understand exactly what it is that you would like to learn about your topic and you can begin researching for some answers in order to have a better understanding of your topic in general.

Before you start plugging in that topic to search for information, though, remember that you need to have a well-rounded approach to your search so that you consider a variety of information and positions surrounding your topic. If you already feel strongly about your topic, you want to make sure not to dismiss any information you initially find that you do not agree with right off the bat. These sources that you do not agree with will actually help build your paper.

2. Developing More Specific Questions for Exploring

This is a good place to begin developing more specific questions over the topic to seek out answers in the materials you find. There are many approaches you can take in order to develop these questions:

• What is _________? Or What does ____________ mean?
• How does __________ compare to other topics/issues that are like it?
• How is ____________ different from other topics/issues?
• Is __________ good or bad?
• What does _________ cause? Or What are the effects of ________?
• What should be done about ___________?

This is what instructors term “exploring” a topic. Using some of these more specific questions can help you begin the process of research by looking for answers, and not just reading through a bunch of information over your topic with no goal or purpose, or settling for the first few articles that come up when you type your topic into a search engine. Having questions about your topic will actually help you focus your research in the sea of information that is available. The next step is actually finding good information from reliable sources.

3. Finding and Evaluating Sources and Information

Now, you know your assignment, you have a topic, and you have thought about and written down some questions to help you research answers. There are actually many different “types” of information, and several different methods for finding that information. Depending on your assignment and topic, your search for information will come from many different places. One important aspect to keep in mind is that some types of information are more reliable than others. Generally, the most reliable types of information come from the following:

• Books (textbooks and academically reviewed and published books)
• Studies or information pieces published in professional journals
• Discipline-specific articles in academic journals

These sources are considered “stable” sources of information because they have been published in print and will not change over time—though, of course, information is always being tested and corrected, which is why currency is also important. They can be obtained physically in the library, or found using a library’s database search (EBSCOHost).

• Websites that offer information that is sponsored by associations, government, or organizations that are reputable

Information from the internet is considered “nonstable” because it can change daily and there is not always a printed record of that information. For example, the online encyclopedia, or “Wikipedia” can be edited by almost anyone at any time. There are moderators for the site, but if information that was added or edited is biased and/or incorrect, the question is, how long will it take the moderators to notice the issue and fix it? This is true for any “Wiki” or blog site, which is why instructors don’t consider these reliable sources and will often forbid students outright from using them.

Good news for you, though, as there are many other types of information:

• Newspaper articles
• Observation or field research
• Information gathered from surveys
• Testimony, anecdotal stories, or hypothetical scenarios
• Information obtained using internet search engines

While these types of sources can offer good information for your research project, it is important to understand that these types of information are more likely to contain biased information, so you must carefully evaluate all information you find.

There are at least four specific elements of a source you should look at in order to help you evaluate that a source’s information is reliable and therefore actually useful. Remember in your earlier school days when you were asked to look for the 5 W’s to help you gather information (Who, What, When, Why and Where)? This is the same concept, but in college, it is now called The Rhetorical Context.

Consider the following elements (TRAC):

Text:

• What is the media or genre of the source (book, essay, government website, newspaper article, opinion piece, magazine article)?
• Is it considered a “stable” or “unstable” source? (Who can change it and how/why might it be changed?)
• How is the text written (style and tone)?

Reader (or Audience):

• Who is the intended audience, or who was the source written to/for?
• How do you compare with the targeted audience? Are you a member of the target audience? How do you know?

Author:

• Who wrote the article?
• Why did the author write?
• How qualified is the author to write the information?
• Was there some motivating occasion that prompted the author to create this work?

Context:

• When and where was the article written/published?
• Is there a listed sponsor or corporation?
• If it is a web-based source, is there a date of last update (or a copyright date) on the site?

If you are able to answer each of the questions above, then you are more likely to have found a reliable source of information. If you can’t answer those questions, beware! Students sometimes do not take the time to ask these important questions surrounding the sources that they find, but knowing this information will build your credibility (ethos) as a researcher and writer of your paper. This will also help you include this information so that you can build the authority of your sources or question a source’s reliability and perspective in comparison to your own argument.

Use this information to help you evaluate not only the information in the sources that you find, but the author who presents that information, the audience the information was originally written for, and the aspects regarding publication and timing. These elements are also necessary when you create your Works Cited page because they make up the required information needed for a bibliography entry.

E. Choose Your “Argument”

If you’ve made an effort to find a variety of perspectives and answer your own questions about your topic, you should now have a good understanding of how to find credible and reliable information from sources that are written by dependable, authoritative authors over specific sources. As the author of your own paper, you now need to think about your own audience and purpose and how you are going to use those sources.

After reading through your sources, don’t be afraid to discard some of them if you don’t think they are reliable enough or if you find several sources with the same information. It’s always a good idea to simply keep the “best” sources and get rid of the others if they do not serve the purpose of adding new information or perspective. Don’t worry—if you’ve done your research well, you will “have enough.”

So now that you have found multiple sources, what do they say about your topic collectively? Is there one main point that stands out as the sources discuss your topic? Are there several points? Are any of the opinions over the topic conflicting? What do you think, feel, and believe about the information you have found over this topic and why? Have you been able to answer any of the questions you originally set out to in the beginning? Having a solid stance on your topic that you can support is the beginning of developing a thesis statement (or claim with reasons) that will guide the organization of your paper. This is really creating an argument. Be sure to keep the information addressed by Dr. Mike Barrett earlier in this book in mind. In fact, reviewing the information in the section “Persuasive Writing or the Argument” is a good idea, as that section provides more specific details while this section is more general.

Argument is crucial in research writing. When we use the term “argument” in this handbook, we are not talking about people fighting and yelling, or a pro/con debate where two sides are presented and a “winner” is declared. In academia, argument is considering all sides of a topic or situation and developing the “best” answer or solution to a problem. “Winning” is not necessarily convincing your reader that your stance is the only correct one, regardless of how passionately you feel about it. Instead, a successful argument convinces a reader that your stance and reasons for that stance are valid and backed by solid research. Argument requires a lot of critical thinking in order to determine the best approach to your topic. Once you have a good understanding of your topic, then you are ready to take the information you have gathered and develop a stance.

F. Develop a Claim with Reasons (the Thesis Statement)

Most students are familiar with the term “thesis statement.” This is the point (or “claim”) you make over your topic, or the interpretation of the information you state and defend. The development of your thesis statement is going to depend on the purpose of your paper, which is why understanding the purpose from the beginning is so important. For some papers, a thesis statement is as simple as a statement of fact you have discovered over your topic, like for informative essays or historical reports. However, for most research papers, your claim will need to be something argumentative, or a claim that someone could reasonably argue against. Facts are not arguments, though interpretations of facts often are, and an information thesis is not the same as one that argues a claim with reasons.

One of the easiest ways to develop a good thesis statement is to provide an answer to one or more of the questions you originally asked over your topic while you were completing your initial research. For example, if your assignment was to write over the general topic of pollution, here are some of the questions you might have asked:

1. What is pollution? What does pollution mean?

Pollution is any form of waste being discarded improperly into the air, land, or water that will not break down over time.

2. How does pollution compare to hazardous waste storage?

Pollution is similar to hazardous waste storage when those storage containers fail.

3. How is pollution different from hazardous waste storage?

Pollution and hazardous waste storage are very different.

4. Is pollution good or bad?

Pollution is bad for the earth in many ways.

5. What does pollution cause? Or What are the effects of pollution?

Pollution causes an increase in global temperatures.

Increased global temperatures, tainted ground water, and declining sea-life populations are all negative effects of pollution.

6. What should be done about pollution?

More regulations need to be in place to reduce chemical run-off and fracking pollution that taints ground water supplies.

Answering your questions is only the first step in developing your thesis, but as you can see from the many options above, you have a lot of choices. You should select wording that best fits the purpose and expectations of the assignment and that you feel the most confident in stating and defending.

Once you have your statement (or claim), you need to develop it further to include your reasons. This is as easy as asking “Why?” or “So what?”

For example, “Pollution is bad for the earth in many ways.” Why is pollution bad? In what ways is it bad, or what can (or should) we do about it? What will this paper be addressing in the body? You see, the thesis statement lays out the organization of your paper to your readers before they ever get into the body.

Developing your claim, then, is as “easy” as adding the reasons that support your statement: “Pollution is bad for the earth because it contributes to increases in global temperatures, tainted water runoff, and a decline in sea-life populations.” Notice that as you develop your claim with reasons, like in this example, you are also narrowing your topic to be more specific.

Another idea to keep in mind is that your thesis statement is not set in stone until you turn in your assignment. Remember that Professor Barrett likens “revision” to being forgiven, so you can change your wording up to the very end. If you are not really happy with what you have to start with, do not worry. Sometimes, you may not even know the “Why” or “In what ways?” until you complete more research, or get the information you already have gathered down on paper. Until you are happy with your wording, consider it a “working thesis statement,” as it is a work in progress. As you gather and process information, the wording of your thesis statement can and should be adjusted to be stronger and more concise as you write.

G. Refine Your Information Search

After developing a solid statement defended by reasons, it is time for more specific research. That’s right—your researching isn’t over yet. As a critical thinker, you are constantly gathering and processing information. Now that you have a good direction and more narrow approach to your topic, you can refine your search for information and evaluate the usefulness of the sources you already have. Using the example of pollution, you have new search terms: ground water pollution, pollution and global warming, and pollution’s effects on sea life.

Refining your search to gather more specific information will not only help develop your paper, making it longer (but not too long—your instructor doesn’t want something that rambles!), but this also adds to your credibility as the author and researcher. At this point, you may see that you have a lot more information over one of your reasons than the others. For many papers, you want to treat all of your reasons equally in development. Gathering your sources and conducting a more specific evaluation of the information will help you see which reasons need more support and therefore more research.

This is also another point in your research process where you can narrow your sources of information, or decide that some of the sources you originally gathered are not going to be helpful in presenting your claim or supporting any of your reasons. On the other hand, refining your search may lead you to new information that you want to add to your paper, which may require you to revise that working thesis statement. Remember, be flexible and keep an open mind as you encounter new information and ideas. Researching and writing is a journey.

H. Address Counterpoints

While providing sufficient support for your own claim is important, in order to maintain your credibility, you will also need to address information that may not support your own opinion on your topic.

For example, there are many people who do not believe that “global warming” is a real issue. Global warming, or climate change, is an issue topic all by itself, and is one of the reasons the specific term was not used in our examples. However, you may want to address this point of disagreement when discussing your reasons for “increases in global temperatures.” If a reader subscribes to the belief that global warming or climate change is a hoax or that human interference (such as pollution) is not causing an increase in temperatures around the globe over time, that reader is not going to take the information you present seriously unless you address this counterpoint so that a reader knows you’ve taken the time to account for another perspective.

Once you present that there is a counterpoint to consider, you also need to address that point. There are a couple of ways to do this. One way is to agree to disagree. There are people who are so committed to their opinion or view on a topic, for whatever reason, that they will never change their minds. Just acknowledging that the other viewpoint exists may be enough. Conceding that there are other points of view and that knowing those points are not enough for you to change your own stance will add to your credibility.

A second way to address a counter argument would be to refute that point with your data and research. When refuting an idea that is different than your own, you need to state the counterpoint so those who hold that point know you understand their point of view. Once you establish the counterpoint, you then need to present evidence as to why that point is not valid, or why your own opinion or interpretation is better.

A third way to address a counter argument to your claim or one of your reasons is to engage in compromise, known as the Rogerian Argument strategy. This is where you can establish the counterpoint and then explain how both your interpretation or opinion, and the ideas of the other side can work together for a common goal. Remember that when you are arguing, you are looking for the best solution for all those involved, and this means you need to be familiar with the many views surrounding the topic in order to accommodate the ideas of the many points of view. Researching and presenting a claim with reasons is much more than just finding information and arranging that information into the form of a readable paper.

I. Avoiding Plagiarism: Integrating Information

1. How to Avoid Plagiarism

In your previous academic experiences, plagiarism may have been barely discussed or entirely overlooked. However, at the college level, plagiarism is a serious academic offense that your instructors will not overlook. Plagiarizing any assignment in  college, at any time, for any reason, can result in punishments ranging from a failed assignment to a zero on the assignment to being expelled from the college. More information about plagiarism and possible punishments can be found in your MACC student handbook.

Briefly defined, plagiarism is using specific words and/or information from a source and/or author and presenting those words or that information as your own without attributing where you found the information. Often, students will do this unintentionally because they either forget to properly cite or because they mistakenly believe that putting information “in their own words” makes citation and documentation unnecessary. This is not true. Anything that you find from another source absolutely, 100 percent must be documented unless your instructor has given you other instructions, such as a literature paper where your instructor may not feel as though it’s necessary for you to formally cite the story you’re writing about because they already know it. When in doubt, always, always ask your instructor. Again, this goes back to giving yourself time.

Sometimes, accidental plagiarism happens because students don’t give themselves enough time to look over their papers and ensure that they have, indeed, put quotation marks and citations where they need to be. You are treading into dangerous territory when you copy and paste directly from a source into your paper, intending to “go back and change it” later. You may forget about “later”—but your instructor doesn’t. This is why copying and pasting straight from a source directly into your paper is not recommended. Use a separate file to copy and paste if you feel as though you absolutely must, or print off the source and highlight what you intend to use so you can summarize, paraphrase, or directly quote as needed.

The only times you do not need citation and documentation are when the information is common knowledge, or when you are offering your own opinions and analysis. For example, the information that the earth revolves around the sun in our solar system is common knowledge; everyone learns this fact in science class and you would not have to cite or document that information. There are very few cases when a student has researched and worked with the information so much that they just “know” specific facts and evidence; however, if there is no reference to how the student knows the information, an instructor will suspect plagiarism. Don’t assume your audience knows everything you know about a subject, and be sure to inform your audience where you learned the information (in your psychology class) or how you know so much about a topic (you are a lifelong baseball fanatic).

For example, a huge St. Louis Cardinals baseball fan (like Professor Marchbanks!) might know all sorts of facts and statistics about the team or baseball in general. However, her audience may not know these same facts and statistics and therefore question where she got the information, even though she “knows” it. If she is going to give a very specific  statistic or fact that an average person may not know, such as that Cardinals’ pitcher Bob Gibson posted a 1.12 earned run average in 1968, which still stands as a major-league record and that the record-low average ERA for pitchers in 1968 prompted Major League Baseball to change the height of the mound, then she would have to cite it from a source—perhaps baseball-reference.com or the Elias Sports Bureau. She would have to understand that an average reader probably doesn’t know those statistics and facts and might ask, “How do you know that?”

So, even though you may “know” some of the information you present in a paper, you must ask yourself, “Can I reasonably assume my reader also knows this?” If you believe the reader does, such as in the case of using information from in-class discussion of lecture material, then citing may not be necessary. In all other cases, it is better to make sure your readers can do their own fact-checking by providing them the sources they can look to in order to verify the information you provide. There is a specific format for you to use in each discipline in order to avoid plagiarism, and you should be sure which one your instructor expects.

In this chapter, we will focus specifically on MLA documentation. However, if you are studying a discipline (such as nursing) that requires APA style for your documentation, know that while the formatting of the Works Cited page and the in-text citations themselves may be different, the basic principles of citation are the same across disciplines. When you need information on APA documentation, you can consult the MACC tutors or visit the Purdue Online Writing Lab.

2. Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summarizing

Hopefully you now understand that citing any information that is not common knowledge or your own thoughts, opinions, analysis, etc. is very important. There are three major ways you can put the information you find through your research into your paper, and you can use any combination of these. Just remember that all three ways require you to cite the source in the body of your paper using proper parenthetical citations or attributive tags, which we cover in further detail later in this section.

a. Quote

Quoting is presenting the words from your source exactly as they appear. This is a word-for-word exact copy of the information from the source. Quotes in papers are easy to identify because there are quotation marks (“ ”) where the words begin and end.

You should minimize your use of long quotations, but if you do use a chunk of text that is longer than four lines when typed out in your paper, then this should be formatted in a block style, with a ½-inch indent of all lines of the quote. Block quotes don’t require quotation marks because of the offset indention, and the punctuation will be placed before the citation and not after.

b. Summarize

Summarizing is taking information and presenting the main idea of that information in your own words. Summarizing information still requires that you acknowledge the original source of the information. You can summarize several pages of information into one or several sentences. For example, if someone asked you what your favorite movie or book is about, you wouldn’t tell them every single detail. Instead, you would summarize the main plot or point in just a few sentences. Using information from sources in your paper is the same concept.

You do not want a paper full of summaries. Summary of material from your sources should not take up more than a few sentences and should be used together with your own analysis of the information.

c. Paraphrase

Paraphrasing information is somewhere in between quoting and summarizing. Similar to quoting, paraphrasing looks at information word-for-word, but like summarizing, those words are your own. Like summarizing and quoting, paraphrasing also requires that you document the original source directly in the text of your paper. Paraphrasing is taking the original source and putting the original words into your own words. The main difference between a paraphrase and summary is length; your paraphrase will be roughly the same length as the original information.’

Like quoting, you should minimize using too much paraphrased information at one time, and you should always include your own analysis of why the information supports your thesis.

d. Using a Variety of Techniques

Knowing when to use each of these techniques is important. While paraphrasing is probably used the least in typical research-based essays, you certainly don’t want to turn in a paper that only contains quotes from your sources or only contains summaries of information. Use moderation, and use a variety of techniques. Students are often tempted to avoid plagiarism by quoting everything, but then the paper isn’t really their own; it’s a mash-up of other people’s words. Use quotes sparingly and when they will have the best impact.

There are a few generally accepted guidelines of when quoting is the best option for the information that you have:

Five Reasons to Quote:
(Adapted from Dr. Michael Hogan & Dr. David Reinheimer’s From Sources to Purpose: A Guide to Researched Writing)

1. The source’s authority is essential.

Some authors are so expert in their fields that what they say is accepted by readers simply because they said it. The same is true for certain resources. If, for instance, you were defining a difficult word, you might quote the definition from the Oxford English Dictionary, the most authoritative dictionary of the English language, so your readers would be more likely to accept that particular definition. Similarly, if you were researching baseball statistics, Bill James is widely considered to be the most authoritative gatherer of such things, so quoting him would have more of an impact on your reader than simply summarizing his information. The words of authoritative sources sometimes carry more weight.

2. The source’s language is exceptional.

The source may use language that is so vivid and remarkable that the best choice is to simply let the source speak for itself. This is the most common—and effective—reason to quote, and why you don’t want to quote everything. If you put everything in quotes, then the words that you want to stand out won’t.

3. You are discussing the source in detail.

Sometimes you want to discuss a passage from a source—say, an important paragraph or two—in detail. In this case, it will be easiest for your reader if you reproduce the original text in your writing before you analyze the passage. This way, the reader can refer to the original in order to understand your analysis. This is common in literary analysis papers.

4. You want to distance yourself from the source.

Often, your sources will not agree with what you think, and you will not agree with what your sources say. But you may need to include some of those sources in your writing. Perhaps the position the source takes is extreme, and you want to make sure your readers know that the viewpoint belongs to your source and not to you. This is especially true if the source’s language is racist, sexist, or otherwise offensive to you or your reader.

5. The source is very difficult to paraphrase.

You will occasionally use a source that is impossible to paraphrase well. Sometimes, the source may depend on technical terms for which there are no synonyms. Other times, the style may be too complicated to paraphrase well. In this case, you should use the source’s own words rather than risk misrepresenting the source.

Again, while quotes are useful and necessary, you do not want your paper to be full of information that you only quote, or only summarize/paraphrase. A strong research paper contains a good balance of all three techniques, and incorporating information should be followed by your own analysis of why the quote or information is important or relevant to your topic. Never assume that your reader understands why you included the information you chose. Whether you decide to include information in your paper by quoting, paraphrasing, or summarizing, you need to introduce your reader to a source before you present the information.

3. Introducing and Integrating your Research Information

In MLA, the first time you use a source in your paper, you should provide your reader with some information on the rhetorical context of the source, such as the author’s full name, the genre, and the context. For example:

In their research study titled “MTBE In Groundwater: Status and Remediation” published in the Journal Of Environmental Engineering in 2002, authors Stephanie Fiorenza, Monica P. Suarez, and Hanadi S. Rifai discuss options to help rid groundwater of the pollutant methyl tert-butyl ether, an additive found in fuel.

This single sentence introduces your readers to the author (Stephanie Fiorenza and others), title, genre (research study) and the context (peer reviewed journal), including timing (2002). After this first full introduction, any time you use information from this source, you only have to use the author’s last name(s) (Fiorenza, et al).

There is more to adding your research to your paper than just typing in your quotes. As you incorporate your research into your paper, you need to make sure there is consistency between your own words and the information you use from your sources when you quote, paraphrase, or summarize. This is called “flow” and keeps your paper from sounding “choppy.” Properly introducing, integrating, and citing information not only helps with indicating to your readers where your words begin and end, and where the information from your sources begins and ends, which avoids plagiarism, it also builds your credibility.

Smooth incorporation (attributive tags)

Once you have your information, and you know what information you want to use, you want to be able to effectively put that information in your paper. When directly quoting, paraphrasing, or summarizing, it is not enough to just put your information in out of nowhere. Using words to introduce the concept at hand is important. In other words, nowhere in your paper should your instructor see something like this:

“Blah blah blah information from source X” (Source X 7). “Blah blah blah information from source Y” (Source Y, para. 7). “Blah blah blah information from source Z” (Source Z 13).

Having nothing but direct “dropped quotes” (complete sentences that contain none of your own words—no introductory phrase or attributive tag) like this makes the information not only not truly your own writing, but awkward for someone trying to read it and make sense of it. Be sure you are using transition words and introducing the quotes using your own words, ideas, analysis, and synthesis. Remember to blend your quote in with an introductory phrase, and blend it out with some commentary/analysis of your own, showing how the information relates to your thesis. There is no reason to use a string of one direct quote after another in any paper.

Many instructors are fans of using attributive tags in writing. Using attributive tags, like the examples in i and ii shown below, can help you incorporate source information more smoothly, as well as give some needed background on who a source is and the authority (or non-authority) he or she has to comment upon the situation at hand. This sort of effort adds some polish to your writing and helps you to integrate your sources with your own words effectively. It also helps a reader to be able to more accurately tell where a quote, summary, or paraphrase fits in with your overall argument.

Along with introducing and integrating your information, you need to make sure a reader will be able to easily find the information in your original source. To do this, you will need to provide certain elements, included in parentheses at the end of the information. This is called an in-text parenthetical citation. The elements you will include in those citations will depend on the format you are using (MLA, APA, etc.).

For MLA format, the citation will include the page number/s or paragraph number your reader can find the quote/information on in your source. Depending on whether you use an attributive tag, your citation may contain the name(s) of the author(s). If you have more than one source by the same author, or authors who have the same last name, you should use part of the title of the source.

Here are some examples of incorporating sources using attributive tags in MLA format:

Quote

According to the findings of Fiorenza et al, “Initial studies on the biodegradation of MTBE reported negative results” (776).

Summary or Paraphrase

The research study of Fiorenza, Suarez, and Rifai into the water contaminate methyl tert-butyl ether found numerous studies that showed different methods of aiding biodegradation and remediation of the chemical compound in the environment (776-779)

All paragraphs need to be developed consistently in length. A general rule is to have at least five to eight well-developed sentences, or about 1/3 – 1/2 the page. While you want to make sure your paragraphs are long enough, you also want to be sure they are not too long. If a paragraph takes up more than 3/4 of a page, you may want to see if you can split the information into two paragraphs. As long as your next paragraph continues the focus of information and flows together, there is no need for a specific transition.

Here are the questions you should ask, or have your friend, peer, or tutor answer over your paper:

Outcome IA:

Does the author demonstrate effective written and/or oral communication considering audience and situation through invention, arrangement, drafting, revision, and delivery?

• Does the paper meet the assignment requirements?
• Is the essay’s purpose clear, complex, and explicitly expressed?
• Is the text unified—each element effectively serving the purpose?
• Is the text appropriately directed to an academic audience?
• Is the language concrete and specific, as opposed to general and abstract?

Outcome IB:

Does the author construct logical and ethical arguments with evidence to support the conclusions?

• Does the text contain an explicit, concisely expressed, and original claim?
• Is the claim buttressed by effective and varied support?
• Are the warrants, stated or assumed, reasonable and free of fallacies?

Outcome IC:

Does the writer conform to the rules of Standard English?

• Does the text contain standard grammar appropriate for an academic writing environment?
• Is the spelling correct?
• Is the punctuation appropriate?

Outcome ID:

Has the author analyzed, synthesized, and evaluated a variety of course material and points of view?

• Does the text include a variety of appropriate material?
• Has that material been appropriately analyzed?
• Has that analysis led to a synthesis directly related to the essay’s purpose?
• Is there more to using the information than just merely using quote after quote?

Outcome IE:

Does the author accept academic responsibility for all work regarding issues of copyright, plagiarism, and fairness?

• Is the text free of plagiarism and copyright violations?
• Are the sources properly cited in the appropriate citation format?
• Is there a citation page?
• Do the parenthetical in-text citations match the works cited entries?
• Are the bibliography entries in the proper format?