6 Score Study

In the intricate world of choral conducting, every detail holds significance, and the art of score study emerges as a vital skill. Composers, arrangers, and editors embed a myriad of information within musical scores, necessitating a systematic approach for conductors to assimilate and convey these nuances effectively during the rehearsal journey and performance. This chapter explores the methodology of color marking scores, offering practical recommendations and tools for both hard copy and digital formats. Through a meticulous system of color-coded annotations, conductors can cultivate a structured awareness of dynamics, rhythm, pitch, phrasing, articulation, and more, facilitating a comprehensive understanding of the musical landscape. Throughout this chapter, the methods that are offered are highly flexible. Just as these ideas have been developed and refined for one person’s preferences and understanding, the reader as conductor should feel at liberty to adapt them in a way that is supportive of their own musical intentions.

Color Marking Methods

Composers, arrangers, and editors provide a plethora of information that is important to the conductor, so much so that it can be difficult to process every detail quickly when you are on the podium. The level of awareness for these details is significant as an ensemble member, and it is exponentially larger as the conductor, who must have an awareness of many more musical lines. Developing a system of score marking is helpful in bringing an organized awareness to these attributes in a way that is helpful in incorporating them into the rehearsal process and conveying them in the gesture.

Recommended Materials

For marking hard copies:

Highlighters: A six-pack of erasable highlighters in different colors. The brand Frixion is popular. The pastel set of highlighters is very delicate in color and not recommended. (Pro-tip: do not leave scores marked with erasable highlighters in a hot location, such as the interior of a car). Ruler: any ruler is fine, but a plastic ruler with a raised center grip is very comfortable. Beware of wooden rulers with the metal edge that can shred highlighter tips.

For marking digital copies:

PDF version of the score: It may be desired to correct tilted pages and crop extra margins ahead of time. Be careful not to crop too much, sometimes the extra room in the margins is a helpful space for markings.

PDF annotation app: Set up the highlighters and pens you might like to use ahead of time. Locate the “ruler” function and familiarize yourself with how to turn it on and off and how to rotate it to vertical and horizontal placements.

Notes on Apps:

For iPad, ForScore is the best app for marking a score as a conductor, offering the option to utilize layers of annotations. Piascore is also popular for iPad, but it lacks layering ability. A popular app for Android tablets is Mobile Sheets. Many students enjoy the marking/writing experience in Goodnotes 6 and will mark their scores there and export it as a PDF to ForScore. The drawback is that the markings made in Goodnotes cannot further be edited in ForScore. Some have exclusively used Goodnotes and are happy with it; however, there are many features which make ForScore a superior app for musicians, for example, the ability to place “buttons” anywhere in the score with a variety of functions (turn back to a page to follow a repeat, play a pitch, give a metronome playing a predetermined tempo.)

An Approach for Color Marking Scores

Before beginning the score marking journey, be sure that the score is prepared for study (especially a digital score). Ensure that all pages are present, legible, in order, and have page numbers; add measure numbers at the beginning of each system. In digital scores, center the systems and adjust titled pages. Translate any unknown musical terms or directions.

The following, colorful approach was initially developed with the basic colors of highlighters in mind. Since highlighters can be bulky to write with, it may be preferred to also have colored pens available for writing available as well. A conductor may prefer to highlight each of these elements in the score with a corresponding highlighter, or perhaps trace them with a pen of the same color. Take the time to mark each element indicated by the color key. One may choose to mark one color at a time, beginning to end, or it may be preferred to add all colors at once, page by page.

• Score Marking Checklist:
  • Dynamics
    • Warm Dynamics (mf, f,  ff, subito f, crescendo) – PINK
    • Cool Dynamics (mp, p, pp, subito p, diminuendo) – BLUE
  • Rhythm/Tempo – ORANGE
    • Time Signatures (including conducting pattern shapes)
    • Tempo Words
    • Metronome Markings
    • Meter Changes
    • Notable Rhythms, Subdivisions, Rhythmic Groupings
  • Pitch/Melody/Harmony – YELLOW
    • Key Signatures
    • Key Changes
    • Unusual Chords
    • Suspensions/Anticipations
    • Harmonic Devices
    • Cadences
  • Phrasing/Articulation – GREEN
    • Articulation words or markings
    • Phrase Marks
    • Breath Marks
    • Diction Marks (consonant placement or shadow vowel)
  • Form or Conductor Notes – PURPLE
    • Repeat Signs
    • First/Second Endings
    • D.S. / D.C.
    • Voice Parts Changing Staves
    • Separating Tightly Printed Systems
    • Entrances / Cutoffs
    • Aural Image Markings

Although the next colors fall outside of “basics,” these ideas could be marked other ways as well, for example, through the use of single and double underlines, or the use of straight and wavy lines.

• Teal and Lime: extra colors for further needed analysis/notes:
  • draw attention to unison printed in open score (highlight words/text, not the notes on the staff)
  • motives/subjects/themes
  • voice pairings (use these any way you would like, two are available if you have more than one occurring at a time)

Marking all of these items will typically create a densely marked score. On one hand, the different colors allow the conductor to zero in on a specific aspect and visually discard (if possible) the other elements. Taking the time to mark each of these elements may also bring attention to details that were not previously noticed, even when one has performed the piece as an ensemble member, or just seem to be hiding in the score. Some conductors quite enjoy the routine of marking the score in this way.

On the other hand, the conductor might find that this approach to score marking feels overly busy and distracting. The main consideration is that the score is analyzed in a way that is helpful in leading rehearsals effectively and conducting clearly. One might choose to only highlight elements on the top line if they are repeated vertically on every line to reduce visual noise. One might also choose to experiment with the idea of marking everything in a study score and creating a performance score with reduced, necessary markings. Of course, this can be very time consuming for a busy conductor. When working with scores on a digital tablet, an application that utilizes separating markings into layers allows certain details to be turned on and off, streamlining the score marking process. In time, each conductor develops a system that is most supportive of their musical intentions.

Other Markings and Analysis

Aural Image 

Another helpful score marking is to add those that support the aural image of the piece. There are a variety of ideas that may emerge from personal experience in choir, previous experience with the piece itself, or from time spent listening to recordings or videos. As score study is completed, hopefully an “image” has emerged in the mind of the ideal performance of the piece. Throughout the score study process, many details have been notated in the score itself. Through personal choral experience, other artistic ideas may also be emerging, such as preferred vocal weight through a particular passage, a vowel shape or modification, treatment of divisi, or additional articulations. Identifying such details in the score study stage will help the conductor to incorporate them into rehearsal, allowing performers to have repetition of these ideas in the long-term rehearsal process.

Conducting Gesture

The conductor may also benefit from notes made about gestures. While conducting, one is processing a great deal of information, leading the choir, listening to the singers, and then responding to what they hear with guidance and feedback. It may be helpful to make decisions about gesture ahead of time and mark them in the score. For example, shapes may be used above the system to denote changes in pattern, important entrances might be bracketed (and voice part notated in dense textures), or specific beats notated for cut-offs. Images for the following markings coming soon! 

4 pattern Shadow vowel

3 pattern More consonant

2 pattern Linger consonant

Cut off on this beat More vertical vowel

2 or 4 part versus 3 More lift

Catch breath Land gently on pitch

Acknowledge comma Lift off syllable

Apex of phrase shape Strong syllable

Strong/weak syllables

Graphic Analysis

A visual analysis of a piece of music can deepen a conductor’s understanding of the score. In addition, it can be helpful in planning out rehearsals. While the exact format of a graphic analysis can vary, it should ultimately support a conductor’s understanding of a piece. A basic format is provided here, but the conductor should feel free to make changes to it for each piece being analyzed, so that the exercise of creating a graphic analysis is supportive to a thorough comprehension of the work.

General Information. The top portion of the graph contains overall information or assessments of the piece. This should include the title, the larger work (if applicable), composer, arranger or editor, voicing, instrumentation, key, time signature, or other supporting information that applies to the whole selection being analyzed.

Graph Elements. The graph itself is organized in rehearsal sections vertically and musical elements horizontally. These elements can change, depending on what is helpful to the conductor’s overall understanding of the piece. Consider these components as a baseline.

Vertical: Each column represents a rehearsal section.

Horizontal: Each row contains the following information:

• Form: Denote which sections combine to create the overall form of the piece if they differ from the rehearsal sections.
• Measures: Denote the beginning and ending measures of the section.
• Phrasing/phrase length: Denote the number of measures that make up each phrase contained in the section.
• Texture: Indicate the type of texture present (i.e. homophonic, polyphonic, imitative, melody over chords).
• Voicing: Indicate which voices are singing in the section and in what groupings. This is extremely helpful as future rehearsals are planned. Some suggestions are:

o S/ATB: the sopranos have one idea while the alto, tenor, bass parts are functioning together as another idea (for example, the sopranos are singing the melody while the alto, tenor, and bass parts are singing supporting block chords in a homophonic texture, a melody/accompaniment structure).

o SA/TB: the sopranos and altos are singing an idea together (possibly unison) and the tenors and basses are simultaneously singing another idea, creating a two-part texture.

o SA, TB: SA sings together, and then TB sings together.

o SATB: all parts are singing at the same time.

• Instrumentation: Indicate what performances forces are present in the section. For piano accompaniment, it might be helpful to briefly describe the texture of the writing here (duplicates the choral lines, piano only, piano prominent with simpler vocal parts, etc.)
• Dynamic Profile: Capture the dynamic level or movement of the section.
• Harmonic Analysis: Include harmonic analysis of the section. Some conductors enjoy and benefit from more in-depth harmonic analysis, but at minimum, include major key areas, cadences, and pivotal harmonic occurrences.
• Text: Note what text is included in the section. This can be helpful to see how long or how little time a composer spends with certain areas of text.
• Translation: Create a separate row for translation if needed.

Prep Sheet 

This tool helps gain an in-depth understanding of the piece. Like the graphic analysis, this sheet begins with general information, but while graphic analysis may contain more structural information, this exercise guides the conductor in gaining familiarity with a piece or compiling known information.

• Recordings consulted: Use this area to keep a list of the top three preferred recordings and the service used to locate them (Spotify, YouTube, etc.). List them with performing ensemble and conductor. It may also be helpful information to make a note of what was preferred about the recording (the tempo used, tone color, phrasing, diction, etc.). Preferences may also develop from recordings outside of the target performance, such as a different age group or alternate voicing.
• Rehearsal sections and/or form: While similar to a graphic analysis, this is a much simpler evaluation of the work. It should still include rehearsal sections and measures and a reference to form. Again, format this space in a way that is helpful for your understanding of the piece.
• Text: In this space, write the entire text of the piece. It may often feel different to see it all in one place, rather than set over many pages. Omit any repetitions that were not a part of the original text creation.
• Background information: Some angles to consider are the culture from which the piece originates, information about the composer as it relates to the piece, the origin or meaning of the text and perhaps information about the author, hallmarks of the style or genre of the piece, the circumstances of its commission, premiere performance, etc.
• Projected challenges: Based on personal choral experience (either in learning the piece personally or through previous experience singing or conducting it), what challenges might you expect to emerge in the rehearsal process, and what teaching strategies you might employ These issues may have to do with the difficulty of the pitches and rhythms, diction sounds that are unfamiliar to the singers, or perhaps even the subject matter of the selection.
• Projected rehearsal plan: Combining all of the information collated on this sheet, use one row per rehearsal section and make a few notes that will be helpful as you plan rehearsal strategy. For example, perhaps a section is dense with text, or there is an anticipated rhythmic, melodic, or harmonic challenge, or in what manner sections with similar thematic material are different.2 Finally, arrange these rehearsal sections in the order you anticipate introducing them in rehearsal. It may be appropriate to rehearse like sections together in subsequent rehearsals or to tackle the most difficult sections first.

Components unique to Choral/Vocal Scores:

Text and Translations

An aspect of score study that is unique to singers is the preparation of text. In the score study journey, it is recommended to address this area early in the score study process, especially when working in an unfamiliar language. It is imperative that the conductor evaluate the suitability of the text for the choir as it pertains to several factors, such as relation to a concert theme, appropriateness for a specific setting or age group. Because translations can differ, it is helpful to consult multiple translations when available. Even in one’s first language, seeing the text written in its poetic form can have a different impact. As a composer sets text, lines might be repeated or delivered spaciously over time; hearing the text all at once might reveal new ideas.

As mentioned, it is imperative for the conductor to consult translations to evaluate suitability. Depending on the language and frequency of performance, some translations may be readily available, while others can be quite difficult to find. Further, some translations may be free, and may have a cost associated with procuring them, as they are the product of scholastic and intellectual labor. (As such, remember to cite the source of your translation.) Finally, it is recommended to obtain both a word-for-word and a poetic translation.

Resources for translations are available in print and online, as well as by consulting a speaker of the language or a culture bearer. In the search, it is up to the conductor to make a scholarly evaluation of the accuracy to the best of their ability. In this vein, it is helpful to consult several translations to find consistency.

Print Resources for Translations: In print resources, the Translations and Annotations of Choral Repertoire series, available from Earthsongs, is a solid resource. Available in four volumes, the series covers popular choral texts in Latin (volume I), German (volume II), French and Italian (volume III), and Hebrew (volume IV). These editions provide word-for-word translations as well as a poetic. Additionally, they provide some background information for each text. While these volumes must be purchased (in the $42-$48 range), they are a solid investment for a career in choral music.

Online Resources for Translation: Online resources can include translation sites and apps, such as Google translate (which includes Latin). It can be time consuming to evaluate each line and then each word, but this is a good resource when a translation cannot be found. Translations can also be found in scholarly resources, such as journal articles, dissertations, theses, and formal program notes. When finding a translation becomes challenging, there may be other resources such as specialized groups in social media (such as a Facebook group) or online discussion boards. These may need to be scrutinized further for accuracy.

Types of Translations: When searching for translations, both a word-for word and a poetic translation are helpful. A word-for-word translation indicates where the most important words are in the text or why a composer set words a certain manner. Sometimes, a word-for-word translation does effectively convey the meaning of the text, but at times, it may just sound like a collection of words whose meaning is difficult to discern. A poetic translation adjusts the syntax and meaning between languages and brings clarity to idiomatic phrases unique to the original language.

Format for Inclusion in Score: When including translations in the score, it is helpful to notate each differently in the score for clarity. Using printing vs. cursive (or two different fonts), as well as different colors and locations in the score is helpful for intelligibility. Consider using one color to print the word-for word translation beneath a staff that is not the main staff you track from.1 To contrast, use another color and write in cursive the poetic translation over the corresponding system. If you are utilizing an app on a tablet that makes use of layers that can be turned on an off, translations and diction should be included on a separate layer that can be turned on and off. A further decision to make is whether you will include translation when text is repeated or only the first time it is presented.

Diction

Some languages follow a strict set of a few rules with a lot of overlap in the sounds of that language and our own. Others may have an overwhelming number of rules or exceptions and may utilize a number of unique sounds outside of the conductor’s first language. Consider some of these resources in marking the score to prepare for rehearsal.

Translation and Annotations of Choral Repertoire. This set of books was previously recommended for use in translation, but several volumes are also great resources for diction. While Volume I: Latin does not provide pronunciation for each text, it does provide a concise guide for Latin diction at the beginning, since this language operates in with a smaller set of fairly strict rules. Volume II: German offers a separate edition for purchase that contains only the IPA transcriptions of the texts in its main volume of translations. The fourth volume (Hebrew) offers both IPA transcriptions as well as a CD that contains models of pronunciation.

www.ipasource.com. IPA Source is an excellent, scholarly resource for diction for singing; however, it is structured around solo vocal literature. Many texts have been set for choral literature in addition to having solo settings, and so they may be found here. This resource also requires a subscription, which many institutions of higher learning have. While access is available during collegiate study, consider thinking ahead to other possible literature and consulting any transcriptions that might be available.

A Handbook of Diction for Singers: Italian German and French, David Adams. This book delves deeply into the rules that govern diction in the French, German, and Italian. It would be time consuming to consult this book for diction in a language of limited familiarity; in that case, it might be best used to look up specific diction questions. However, it is an excellent resource to help one develop a thorough understanding of the principles that guide the intricacies of the included languages.

www.openipa.org. As society continues to develop tools that are powered by artificial intelligence, tools like openipa.org are sure to expand and multiply. Currently, it is a resource that will provide IPA transcriptions for a text in Latin or French.

www.ipa.typeit.org. To include typed IPA symbols in your score, this website includes the full set of IPA symbols. To use, type in the box, using the regular letters from the keyboard and the IPA characters from the screen as needed. Copy the transcribed material and paste to your score.

Culture Bearers, Native and Fluent Speakers

In preparing diction and translation, the conductor may wish to consult someone who speaks the target language. When asking for someone’s intellectual labor, it is professional to offer compensation for their time and skill. Consider asking to record them speaking the text and transcribe it personally or try to prepare it ahead of time and ask them to coach you through the pronunciation. Be aware that if the speakeris not experienced in vocal music, there may be some discrepancies in pronunciation between what is spoken and what accepted vocal technique observes. For example, in French, the “r” sound is typically pronounced in the back of the mouth as a uvular trill; however, in sung French, it is typically accepted to pronounce this consonant as an alveolar trill (a flipped “r”).

Inclusion in Marked Score: When preparing the marked score, add the IPA neatly under the text of a vocal line, including notations for syllabification and stress. It may be helpful to add the IPA to the line from which you visually track the score so that the information is easily available as you listen in rehearsal, or it may be most helpful to simply add it where there is the most space.

Practicing and Modeling Diction for Rehearsal: Conductors should feel confident in modeling diction correctly, preparing prior to rehearsal. To practice, first try speaking individual syllables as slowly as needed. Repeat this step combining syllables into words. When the words can be spoken comfortably, try combining them into phrases or sentences that is consistent with usage in the score. Finally, try speaking the words in the given rhythm. This particular approach of syllable, word, phrase, and rhythm is also an effective tool in presenting diction to singers in a rehearsal.

Conclusion

The process of preparing a music score for a choral rehearsal is not merely an academic exercise but a crucial step in the journey towards a successful performance. Score study offers conductors the invaluable opportunity to delve deeply into the nuances of a piece, enabling them to lead their choir with precision and insight.

While the solitary nature of score study may sometimes seem like a luxury, it is an investment of time that pays dividends in the rehearsal room. By immersing oneself in the score, conductors can develop a comprehensive understanding of the music, transitioning from a street-level perspective to a global view that encompasses every aspect of the composition. However, it’s important for conductors to exercise discretion in sharing their wealth of knowledge with the choir. While thorough preparation is essential, overwhelming singers with too much detail can be counterproductive. Each piece of music and each choir is unique, requiring a flexible approach that balances scholarly analysis with practical considerations.

Furthermore, score study is not a one-time task but an ongoing process. Repertoire is often repeated over the course of a career, and conductors should continue to revisit their preparations each time a selection is programmed. With the vast resources available online, conductors must remain vigilant, continuously updating their understanding of the music.

Ultimately, the choices made during score study are best guided by the director’s familiarity with the choir and their deep understanding of the work at hand. Whether it is the allure of a captivating melody, the resonance of a profound text, or the significance of a particular occasion, these decisions shape the interpretive approach and contribute to a rich and meaningful choral experience. By embracing score study as a dynamic and ongoing process, conductors can unlock the full potential of their choir and bring the music to life with passion and authenticity.

About the author

name: Erynn Millard

institution: Florida International University

Erynn Millard is the Director of Choral Activities at Florida International University’s Herbert and Nicole Wertheim School of Music and Performing Arts in Miami. Leading the Concert Choir, she also teaches courses in choral conducting and literature at both undergraduate and graduate levels. Dr. Millard frequently presents at regional and international conferences with research interests in Latin American choral music and rehearsal pedagogy. Her choral contributions extend globally, with appearances at the All-European Honor Choir in Frankfurt and Festival Internacional de Música Renacentista y Barroca Americana in Bolivia. She is an alumna of Florida State University and Old Dominion University.