We live in a world brimming with natural spaces. Why are some sacralized, made the home of rituals, and cherished by religious adherents? This chapter focuses on the creation and maintenance of sacred spaces within the natural world. In this case, we have directed our attention to natural spaces that are associated with specific religions, mostly in the form of Hinduism and Native American religions. These spaces elicit strong sacrificial qualities that serve important purposes for their visitors and thus impact the geographic landscape around them. This chapter includes three separate pieces, that move from broad to more specific. All of which explore different topics that include sacred spaces within the natural realm and work to create a greater understanding of the naturally sacred.

The paper titled The Cycle of Affect: An Analysis of Natural Sacred Spaces, written by Hannah Huggins, examines why some natural features advance to the realm of sacred, while others blend into the mundane landscape of ordinary life. A cycle of affect is present in natural sacred sites that constructs and reconstructs the sacredness associated with the space. The cycle is established with the initial feelings of affect associated with the space. These feelings increase cognitive processing and the interest in an area. In turn, a story is created about the space explaining its existence and importance. From the story stems ritual performances that restore and enhance the initial feelings linked to the natural feature. Thus, a restorative and reinforcing cycle is constructed that produces layers of sacredness associated with a particular natural space. Throughout this paper the cycle of affect is exemplified through Devils Tower, the Ganges River, and Crater Lake. The affect felt in these three spaces has inspired stories that generate paralleling rituals. The rituals associated with these sites thus stem from the initial affect of a space and, therefore, increase the emotions felt within a space. The feelings increase the sacredness of the space and make the rituals more important. This cycle continues to grow and enhance the levels of sacredness associated with a space overtime. The notion that initial feelings of affect create the base of sacredness furthers the idea that emotions are central to the creation of sacred spaces.

Next, Lena Beckhorn’s paper, Natural Sacred Spaces in Hinduism examines why natural spaces are so central and sacred in Hinduism. Natural sacred sites are the focal point of Hinduism and, therefore, are more closely tied to this religion than Western theologies. Natural sacred spaces in Hinduism are often the physical manifestations of important events in Hindu epics. This analysis examines three natural sacred spaces Mount Meru, carved cliff temples, and the Ganges River. The goal of this paper is to analyze and explain why these particular sites have been sacralized and why they have become significant aspects to the religion of Hinduism. In conclusion this paper explains how these locations are connected through sacred cosmology.

Last, the paper titled, Natural Sacred Spaces in Hinduism: The Ganges, written by Madison McClish, seeks to explore the Ganges River in India as a sacred space to the Hindu religion. In doing so, it attempts to uncover the intricate connection between Hindu sanctification of the river and efforts to clean up the river. This paper begins by providing information on Hinduism and their platform for worship and then moves into exploring the Ganges River as a whole, including the many important rituals that Hindus associate with the river. This piece works to provide readers with a profusion of information on the Ganges River as it relates to Hinduism, in addition to its practical purposes as well, which include the river taking on the role of a trashcan, bathtub, washing machine, etc. Thereby, calling attention to the high levels of pollution present in the river, which are extremely difficult to address given not only the sacredness of the river to Hindus, but also the practical purposes that it serves for India.

The papers in this chapter combine to form an analysis of natural sacred spaces. Why are natural spaces made sacred? What do these sites demonstrate about the religion that allows them to be labeled as sacred? How can a distinction of sacred affect the everyday uses of such spaces? The papers that constitute this chapter examine some of these important questions and strive to further understand natural sacred spaces and their importance. These papers’ analyses of natural sites have the potential to support and advance the study of sacred spaces by enhancing the level of knowledge about how space is made sacred and how it impacts the surrounding areas. Enjoy reading about the world of the naturally sacred.

The Cycle of Affect: An Analysis of Natural Sacred Spaces

By Hannah Huggins

The world is full of wondrous, awe-inspiring features, but only some extraordinary spaces are exceptional enough to be deemed sacred. Why are some landscapes and features made sacred? Why have they risen above the monotonous world of the everyday into a realm of refuge, restoration, and heightened connection to the supernatural? These spaces are associated with stories and rituals that work to recreate the feelings and emotions associated with the site itself and, therefore, heighten the original affect felt in the area. The performances and rituals stem from a story that is inspired by the original emotions felt in a space, increase the affect associated with the natural feature, and thus enhance the sacredness of the site. This creates a reinforcing cycle that generates and builds the levels of sacredness associated with a natural space. This paper analyzes the cycle of affect, seen in natural sacred spaces, that begins with the original emotions felt in a space and ends with the heightening of these initial feelings through the telling of a story and the performance of rituals.

The cycle of affect that makes a natural space sacred begins with original feelings associated with the natural feature that inspire individuals or groups. Throughout this paper, the affective capacity, ability of a space to evoke emotions, of a space will be analyzed to allow for a better understanding of the individual experiences that are so central to the sacralization of a natural sacred space (Finlayson 2012). In these natural settings, affect is biologically elicited and is a very important determinant for individual’s further interaction with the features (Ulrich 1983). Hence, the original, genetically linked feelings associated with a space determine how the area will be perceived and dealt with in the future. The following quote from Ulrich’s article “Aesthetic and Affective Response to Natural Environment” clearly and explicitly demonstrates the initial affect that a natural space conjures and how a space’s affective capacity can lead to increased interaction with the space.

“As an extreme example, an aesthetically spectacular vista would likely elicit an initial affective reaction of strong preference and interest that could sustain a lengthy and elaborated cognitive process, involving detailed perception and processing of the visual information and thoughts as diverse as memories from a childhood vacation or an idea recalled from a poem. This would be an exception, however, as the vast majority of encounters are with unspectacular natural environments eliciting comparatively weak affective responses that are probably dominated by the initial general affective reaction and involve only elementary cognition.” (Ulrich 1983, 93).

Here, Ulrich describes and explores how an individual is initially inspired by a natural space. The beauty and otherness (beyond the sites of daily life) of the space elicit a strong emotional reaction, which in turn leads to further exploration of the space and enhances cognitive processing (Ulrich 1983). The notion that visually experiencing a space generates diverse thoughts is important for it demonstrates a natural spaces capacity to trigger ideas, and eventually the creation of a story. The story leads to rituals and, therefore, is an integral step in the process that makes a space holy. The initial affect associated with a space creates an environment that is ideal for the growth of sacredness.

Many natural spaces have the affective capacity to provoke the intense cognitive processing and emotions that combine to form a story associated with the space (Finlayson 2012). Natural sacred spaces vary quite a bit; however, they are often beautiful and generate feelings of awe, such as the vista example in Ulrich’s work (1983). These spaces are also often otherworldly. The perceptions of difference, as well as the affect conceived lead to different treatment of the area. Crater Lake and Devil’s Tower are good examples of sacred spaces that are different from daily experiences and, therefore, were given special attention by those who adhere to the religions that sacralize these spaces. Some natural sacred spaces are also thought to be given preference due to their necessity for life and survival (Ulrich 1983). For example, water features have been shown to evoke positive feelings and generate increased interest in the natural space (Ulrich 1983). These universal feelings associated with water are believed to have biological roots (Ulrich 1983). Some natural features that are necessary for life are thought to have, through evolution, grown more important to humans and thus people show more natural interest in these areas (Ulrich 1983). The Ganges River and Crater Lake are two natural spaces that fit the pattern of sacred sites that were made sacred through their evolutionary connections (Ulrich 1983). Whatever the initial cause, spaces that elicit affect also evoke further interest and connections to life.

Stories about natural sacred spaces derive from the initial emotions and affects felt in a space. The interest associated with highly affective space that leads people to stay in, seek out, and explore a space also has the strength to inspire stories correlated with the area (Ulrich 1983). The behavior and increased cognitive processing associated with affective sites build the base for further thought about the space. The increased thought has the potential to develop into a story associated with the area, explaining the wondrous, supernatural space. For example, there are over 24 Native American tribes who view Devil’s Tower as a sacred space and they have many different oral narratives about the huge tower (National Park Service. 2017). The notion that many groups consider the same site sacred supports the idea, depicted in Ulrich’s work, that people favor certain landscapes and natural features (1983). The fact that the tower has many diverse worshipers also demonstrates the ways stories can be created through cognitive processes that raise memories of past life experiences and spark one’s imagination. The different stories about Devil’s Tower, associated with different tribes, are also associated with different rituals. While the stories from different tribes vary, many of the stories revolve around a large bear and prayer for salvation from the monstrous animal. Although, these different groups pray to varying entities, such as the Great Spirit, they all revolve around prayer (National Park Service 2017). This story has connections to the rituals of Native Americans. Many different rituals occur at Devil’s Tower; however, the most prevalent involve prayer offerings. These offerings, typically prayer cloths or bundles, are representative of the prayers made in the oral traditions of the Tower. “Modern connections [to the monument] are maintained through personal and group ceremonies” (National Park Service 2016). Therefore, the rituals are a reenactment of the stories associated with Devil’s Tower. The example of stories and rituals related to the space is a profound representation of the cycle of affect. It is an otherworldly space associated with many stories that blossom into rituals and recreate the affect felt in Devil’s Tower. This recreation of the affect heightens and refurbishes the sacredness of the space.

Sacredness is often constructed and intensified through the act of ritual. Ritual is an action that enhances a space’s sacredness by reconstructing the emotions of a space. Rituals serve as metaphors for understanding the world and that which cannot be known (Boivin 2009). The religious performances and rituals associated with a space can make it sacred or a site can become the designated location for rituals due to its holy connotations (Stump 2008, 304). An example of the later is seen in the Ganges River that is supremely sacred in Hinduism. The Ganges is considered to flow through Shiva’s hair and is thought to have been brought to earth “to purify the ashes of one of the early kings of Ayodhya” (Stump 2008, 312). The Ganges is considered to possess superior purifying qualities. The rituals associated with the river involve washing, bathing, and the handling of human remains (Stump 2008). The funeral processes involve the bestowing of ashes and human bodies in the river (Das 2017). These rituals are tied to the narrative of the already sacred Ganges, which is believed to embody the Goddess Ganga (Cartwright 2015). The modern washing and purification rituals parallel the need to purify the King of Ayodhya’s ashes. Therefore, in the case of the Ganges, the rituals were originally conducted there due to the spaces sacredness, but with time the holiness of the river was enhanced through the ritual performances (Stump 2008). The rituals allow people to wash away their sins and amplify the sacredness already flowing through the river. Hindus relationship to the Ganges exemplifies the emotions that build sacredness. Twenty-five percent of the water resources of India come from the Ganges River (Das 2017). It is central and necessary for the survival of human life in India. The river’s necessity dates back to the origination of the story. The biological need and human preference for water combine to create feelings and evoke thoughts about the Ganges that led to the creation of a supernatural narrative (Ulrich 1983). The story made the River sacred because it is considered supernatural and literally believed to flow from a different world. The views of sacredness were strengthened through the use of rituals that increase and recreate the affect felt in the space. The cycle, beginning with affect, comes full circle as ritual heightens the emotions already felt in the natural space. Crater Lake, situated in the void of a collapsed volcano that erupted 7,700 years ago, is a good illustration of the cycle of affect seen in many natural sacred spaces. Kalmath Native Americans worshipped this magnificent lake in Oregon (National Park Service 2018). Crater Lake is both awe-inspiring and involves a water feature, which is associated with positive feelings for many people (Ulrich 1983). These two factors together construct the perfect environment for people to create a narrative about Crater Lake’s past. Kalmath Native Americans believe that Llao, the spirit of the Below-World could enter into the regular world through the hole of Crater Lake (before there was water) (“Cultural History” n.d.). He became very angry one day when Loha, the Kalmath Chief’s daughter, rejected him (“Cultural History” n.d.). The Kalmath people asked Skell, the spirit of the Above-World, to help protect them after Llao threatened the tribe. Skell on top of Mount Shasta and Llao on top of Mount Mazama had a huge fight that caused a great darkness and trembled to world (“Cultural History” n.d.). Skell eventually defeated Llao and then covered the hole to the Below-World with the pristine water that is Crater Lake. This story of courage, battle, defeat, and victory corresponds to the rituals associated with Kalmath Native Americans in Crater Lake.

The rituals conducted in Crater Lake both enhance the sacredness of the lake and recreate the feelings of affect felt there. Quests are often undertaken around Crater Lake. For instance, vision quests are usually carried out around puberty in order to gain power, while crisis quests are aimed at spiritually healing wounds, such as those inflicted by the lose of a child (Crater Lake Institute n.d.). Other rituals include Malwalks, a dangerous climb carried out to pile rocks on a point overlooking the lake, and a run from the western rim down the wall of the lake (Crater Lake Institute n.d.). One was considered to have sacred powers if they did not fall on their way down (Crater Lake Institute n.d.). Many people go to Crater Lake to face their demons and troubles. The unfortunate events that lead to the troubles one faces are much like the trouble Llao inflicted on the world. He shook up the world, leaving it dark and sad until Skell prevailed. People are much like this, journeying to the Lake in search of healing and a supernatural experience in times of darkness. For example, some swim at night on quests in order to see spirits (Crater Lake Institute n.d.). Each of the discussed rituals associated with Crater Lake are about having the courage and strength to overcome challenges. This reflects and parallels Skell and the world’s fight against Llao. The legend has thus led to rituals, which enhance the sacredness of the space. The notion that one can dive into the deepest lake in America at night in order to come across a spirit, and transform into a shaman, a person with special powers, is a demonstration of the significance of the Lake and the power it holds (Crater Lake Institute n.d.). The belief that people can encounter something holy, embrace their strength and power, and overcome seemingly insurmountable challenges culminate to grow and strengthen the perception that Crater Lake is a sacred space, which in turn increases the space’s sacredness. The example of Crater Lake demonstrates the association between rituals and stories. Therefore, it demonstrates the importance of initial affect when examining and understanding the regenerated affect of rituals. The initial emotions and interest in a place lead to a story. The story and rituals work together to help individuals understand the unknown. For many people, natural sacred spaces are different than any they have ever seen before. In this sense, the space represents individual and religious attempts to understand the world. The rituals build on the story and enhance the emotions felt in the space. The elevated feelings are associated with heightened sacredness. Devil’s Tower, the Ganges River, and Crater Lake are three examples of natural sacred spaces that exhibit the cycling of affect. All three are sites that elicit biological affect and stimulate enhanced cognitive processing. This increased thinking influence the creation of a story, which builds the base for rituals. The rituals that reflect the story of a space reconstruct the affect felt in a space and, therefore, increased the sacredness felt in the natural feature. The layers of sacredness build on one another and enhance the feelings associated with a natural area. A natural space is made sacred through a cycle of affect that starts with an original feeling, an inspiration.

Works Cited

Boivin, Nicole. 2009. “Grasping the Elusive and Unknowable: Material Culture in Ritual Practice.” Material Religion: The Journal of Objects, Art and Belief, 5: 266 – 287

Cartwright, Mark. 2015. “Ganges.” Ancient History Encyclopedia. Last modified May 27, 2015. https://www.ancient.eu/Ganges/

Crater Lake Institute. “The Kalmath Indians of Southern Oregon Cascades: Ritual and Worldview.” n.d. http://www.craterlakeinstitute.com/online-library/klamath-indians-         southern-oreogn/ritual.htm (accessed April 5, 2018).

“Cultural History.” n.d. http://oe.oregonexplorer.info/craterlake/history.html (accessed April 5 2018).

Das, Subhamoy. 2017 “Ganga: The Hindu Goddess of the Holy River.” Thoughtco, Accesses Mar 21. https://www.thoughtco.com/ganga-goddess-of-the-holy-river-1770295

Finlayson, Caitlin. 2012. “Spaces of Faith: Incorporating Emotion and Spirituality in Geographic Studies.” Environment and Planning A 2012, 44: 1763 – 1778.

National Park Service. 2016. “A Sacred Site to American Indians.” Accessed March 21, 2018. https://www.nps.gov/deto/learn/historyculture/sacredsite.htm

National Park Service. 2017. “First Stories.” Accessed March 21, 2018. https://www.nps.gov/deto/learn/historyculture/first-stories.htm

National Park Service. 2018. “Basic Information.” Accessed March 20, 2018. https://www.nps.gov/deto/learn/historyculture/first-stories.htm

Stump, Roger W.  2008. The Geography of Religion: Faith, Place, and Space. Plymouth, UK: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, INC.

Ulrich, Roger S. 1983. “Aesthetic and Affective Response to Natural Environment.” In Behavior and the Natural Environment, edited by Altman and Wohlwill, 85-125. New York:            Plenum Press.

Sacred Space in Hinduism

By Lena Beckhorn

Hinduism has its roots in the Indus Valley civilization, which flourished from about 2500 B.C. to 1500 A.D. Not much is known about the Indus Valley civilization, what we do know is that their religion has close ties to what is later called Hinduism. Both religions share practices of ritual bathing, animal sacrifice, and worship of a goddess (Flood 2009). Hinduism emphasizes its connection to natural sacred spaces because it is the oldest religion and unlike Western religions, natural sacred spaces are the focal point of Hinduism. Towards the end of Indus Valley civilization’s decline a group called the Aryans start to migrate into the area. The large influx of Aryan people happened around 1500 A.D., when the Indus Valley Civilization was waning (Rodrigues 2006). The Aryans migrated over the mountains and spread throughout India. The Aryans were the ones who brought Sanskrit along with their culture and traditions with them to India. The Aryans record their beliefs and religion in the Vedas, which are written in Sanskrit. The Vedas written by the Aryans are some of the important books in Hinduism. It is the mixing of some values from the Indus Valley Civilization, other indigenous people, and the Aryans that eventually becomes Hinduism. Much of Hindu cosmology has a deep connection with nature and its natural topography and surroundings. The rivers, mountains, and valleys of India are incorporated into Hindu mythology. These special geographic locations from their great epics and creation mythologies are declared sacred by Hindus through their association with particular deities or events. These natural places are in themselves inherently awe-inspiring because they are fantastical natural phenomena. The Himalayan Mountains, with their towering snowcapped peaks, inspire wonder and awe. Hindus wonder how these places came to be, and their answer is to incorporate them into their myths. Often natural sacred spaces are locations or topographic features that inspire awe and provoke deep emotions. This feeling is often enhanced by the practice of rituals. Rituals consecrate space and differentiate between secular and sacred. In Hinduism mountains and rivers are often sites of both ritual practice and deep emotional sacredness. In India the separation between the sacred and the secular is less clearly defined. Hinduism is not like Western religions, it does have temples for ritual worship but attending a weekly service is not required. Hinduism is more a personal religion rather than a communal one.  In the Vedas many of the rituals incorporate sacrifices involving ritual fire to Agni, the god of fire. Other Hindu gods such as Vishnu, the protector of the universe, are also present in the Vedas. Around 500 B.C., scribes wrote the immensely popular epics Mahabharata, Ramayana, and the Bhagavad-Gita (Flood 2009).

Some of the core beliefs of Hinduism are the idea of Dharma, which means a duty, Samsara, the cycle of death and rebirth, and Karma, the impact an individual’s actions. Bhakti, an act of love and devotion towards a deity, and Puja, ceremonial worship, are important in everyday Hindu practice. Another central text, besides the Vedas is the Laws of Manu, the set of codes and obligations for practicing Hindus. The Tantras, a text on ritual and meditative practices, is almost as revered as the Vedas. Bhakti Puja, loving devotion, and temple worship are still essential aspects of Hinduism today. There is not one Hinduism but a multiplicity of Hinduism’s. Compared to Western religions there is no singular correct way to practice Hinduism, but a multitude of different ways. Hinduism is a henotheistic religion, which means they worship many gods, but one god is elevated above the rest.

Hindu temples do not serve the same function as other houses of worship in the Abrahamic or Western traditions. Unlike Abrahamic traditions weekly services are not compulsory. Hindu worship focuses more on the individualistic aspect of worship than communal. A Hindu temple or Mandir in Sanskrit is considered the dwelling place of a particular deity. The temple is considered a Tirtha, a crossing place or fjord, a sacred place where heaven and earth meet (Cartwright 2015).  A Tirtha is a holy place usually associated with holy rivers or mountains. The temple is attended to by either priests or priestesses. Hindu worship at a temple consists of offering Puja, Darshan, seeing the divine, and circumambulating the interior of the temple. The temple itself is supposed to symbolize Mount Meru, the home of Shiva (Eck). The site where the temple is to be located is selected because of its auspicious location according to cosmology. In India, the temple is also considered a divine image, a sacred space where a deity dwells. “In building a temple, the universe in microcosm is reconstructed” (Eck 59). The architectural plan for the temple is also divine and, “Is called a mandala, a geometric map of the cosmos” (Eck 1998, 59). The temple consists of eight compass points, which are guarded by cosmic deities (Eck 1998). “The temple is an architectural pantheon, with each portion of the structure inhabited by the gods. The particular mandala of the Hindu temple is called the Vastu-Purusa mandala” (Eck 1998, 59). In Hindu cosmology, Purusa is the cosmic man whom from his body different parts of the universe were created. In short, the temple is a condensed image of the cosmos (Eck 1998). The building of the temple is in itself inherently a ritual. Temples are built according to the canonical instructions in the Vedas (Eck 1998). Eck (1998) explains:

The building of a temple, like the shaping of an image, is not left to the creativity of the architect or craftsmen. It carefully follows canons of building and is, from beginning to end, a ritual activity. From the stretching of the cord, or the drawing of the lines of the mandala, every one of the movements is a rite and sustains, in its own sphere of effectiveness, the sacred building, to the same extent as the actual foundation supports its weight (60).

Temples are built in an architectural style that mimics a mountain range (Eck 1998). Usually this mountain range is the Himalayas, and the peaks are considered sacred to Hinduism. The extravagant carvings on the exterior, and the dark cave-like interior of the temple, mimics the beauty and majesty of a mountain (Eck 1998). They symbolically link the temple and a mountain together(Eck 1998). The exterior of a temple has multiple peaks, like mountain ranges, that increase in height. These are called mandapas, the highest temple spire is called the sikhara which is located directly over the inner sanctum. The word sikhara actually means mountain peak in Sanskrit (Eck 1998). The smaller temple spires below it are representative of foothills (Eck 1998). Hindus believe that mountains can link heaven and earth together. Since temples are symbolic mountains, they also have the ability to link the heavens and the earth. In Hindu mythology, the cosmic mountain is covered in plant animal life and people, which is why the exterior of a temple is lavishly decorated. The inner sanctum of the temple is called the garbhagrha, the womb chamber (Eck 1998). This is where the connection between the heavens and the earth is. This is often why Hindu temples have multiple towers; Hindu temple architecture is built to represent sacred cosmology. Frequently, the exterior of these grand buildings are elaborately decorated with important myths and deities from Hindu mythology.

The darkness of the interior of the temple also reminds you to look deep within yourself. When Hindus visit temples they circumambulate the exterior to symbolize circling the entire world (Eck 1998). When a devote enters the temple and pass through each section of it and arrive in the inner chamber one journeys through the entire world to the center of the universe (Eck 1998). Often it is customary to also circumambulate the inner sanctum. People also receive Darshan from visiting a temple.

Some the earliest temples are hewn out of the cliff facades of mountains, incorporating the inherit sacredness into the temple. The Ajanta Caves in Andhra Pradesh, India created in 4 B.C. is an example (Fabricius 2010).  The Highly impressive, gargantuan Ellora Caves in Maharashtra, India built in 783 A.D. are an excellent example (Fabricius 2010).  Kailasa Temple part of the Ellora Caves exemplifies all the architectural features of a standard Hindu temple including the spires and cuts deep into the cliff side. It is a freestanding temple carved from the side of the mountain. Kailasa Temple is the world largest monolithic structure hewn from a single piece of rock and is one of the largest Hindu temples in the world (Mingren 2017). Part of it consists of a freestanding temple nestled deep in the cliff face and carved from the encompassing rock. The temple is built to symbolize Mt. Kailash and is dedicated to Shiva (Mingren 2017).

Many of the sacred sites of pilgrimage in Hinduism are tied to their cosmology and important places in their epics. In Hindu cosmology, Mt. Meru is the center of the universe, the birthplace of earth, the seat of Shiva, and the home of the divine (Aleph 2012). It is the source and headwater for the four most sacred rivers in India (Mystery Of India 2014). Many such places in Hindu myth are represented in the geographic landscape of India. Hindus consider Mount Kailash to be the physical manifestation of Mt. Meru on earth. As such, Mount Kailash, in Tibet, is one of the most sacred natural sites in Hinduism. The mountain functions as an axis mundi for the universe of Hinduism. Similar to the temple, it is considered auspicious to circumambulate the mountain and leave offerings. Although Mt. Meru is considered the ultimate pilgrimage for Hindus, it is actually the least visited natural sacred place in Hinduism (Sacred Sites n.d.). This is partly due to its remote location in the Himalayas and due to the Chinese government restricting access (Colorado College n.d.). Mount Kailash is mentioned in the Hindu epics under the name Sumeru Parbat or Mount Meru (Mystery of India 2014). Although there are many holy pilgrimage sites throughout India, Hindus regard Mount Kailash in the Himalayan region of Tibet as the ultimate pilgrimage site on earth.

Not only are mountains and temples that imitate mountains considered sacred places in Hinduism, but bodies of water, such as rivers, are sacred as well. Many sacred places in India have names that are rooted in Hindu mythology. Among the many holy rivers in India, the Ganges River holds the highest symbolic importance. Mt. Meru is actually the source of the headwater for the tributaries that turn into the Ganges River. Hindus believe that the Ganges River originally only flowed through heaven (Eck 1998). When the Ganges River decided to come to earth, Shiva caught the river in his hair to break the river’s fall, and then the river flowed down the Himalayas and through the rest of India (Eck 1998). The Ganges River is considered to be Shiva’s divine energy in liquid form (Eck 1998). Hindus believe that bathing in the Ganges River cleanses a person of their sins.

In Hinduism, the land and their temples are considered sacred spaces because they embody sacred events and places on earth. Hinduism builds their temples in the image of a mountain range because Mt. Meru is a sacred place. The temples, Mt. Meru, and the Ganges River are all connected. Mt. Meru is the center of the world in Hinduism and Hindu temples are miniature replications of the universe. The Ganges River’s headwaters originate on Mt. Meru. Mt. Meru is considered the abode of Shiva and the Ganges River flowed through Shiva’s hair and is his divine energy. Hinduism emphasizes its connection to natural sacred spaces because they are focal point of the religion.  Due to its status as the oldest religion, Hinduism beliefs and practices accentuate their connection to natural sacred spaces in greater capacity then Western religions.

Works Cited

Ancient Origins. 2018. “Kailasa Temple: How Was This Massive Hindu Temple Carved out of a Single Rock?” Last modified 16 June, 2017. http://www.ancient-origins.net/ancient-places-asia/kailasa-temple-how-was-massive-hindu-temple-carved-out-single-rock-008249

Catwright, Mark. 2015. “Hindu Architecture.” Last Modified September 4 2015. https://www.ancient.eu/Hindu_Architecture/

Colorado College. n.d. “Mount Kailash” Accessed April 4, 2018. http://sites.coloradocollege.edu/indigenoustraditions/sacred-lands/mount-kailash/

Eck, Diana. 1998. Darśan: Seeing the Divine Image in India. New York: Columbia University Press.

Encyclopedia Britannica. 2018. “Ellora Caves.” Accessed 24 April 2018. http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/history/history_1.shtml

Flood, Gavin. 2009. “History of Hinduism.” Last modified Aug 24 2009. https://www.britannica.com/place/Ellora-Caves

India, Mysterious. 2018. “30 mind-boggling images of the Kailasa Temple that prove ancient Indian had advanced technology.” Last modified April 24, 2017. http://www.themysteriousindia.net/mind-boggling-images-of-the-kailasa-temple/

Rodrigues, Hillary. 2006. Introducing Hinduism. New York: Routledge.

Sacred Sites. n.d. “Mount Kailash” Accessed April 4, 2018. https://sacredsites.com/asia/tibet/mt_kailash.html

Natural Sacred Spaces in Hinduism: The Ganges

By Maddie McClish

Religion is known to be a very powerful force in human life, impacting people’s decisions and the environment around them. There are a plethora of religions practiced around the world, and within each religion there are spaces considered sacred. These specific spaces serve a certain purpose and elicit certain feelings. Bryant (1994) identified sacred spaces as, “places of communion between the human and divine, or places of power where human life might be transformed, or places that reflect or embody the sacred order of the divine, or all three of these” (Bryant 1994).  In reference to the Hindu religion, sacred spaces that meet Bryant’s standards are often present in natural settings and most important is the Ganges River, which is imperative to Hinduism and its religious beliefs and values. The Ganges River and its centrality to the Hindu religion has resulted in a multitude of religious rituals that take place within and around the river. In compilation with the role that the river plays in Hinduism, it also plays a part in everyday Indian life and in Indian industry, which has led to the river  experiencing especially high levels of pollution that have far reaching impacts. Consequently, the Ganges river as a sacred entity, is representative of the intricate connection believers have created between divine forces and the natural environment in Hinduism, this has had devastating effects on the environment, and this connection has made it very difficult to address both sacred and secular concerns about the river.

For the purpose of understanding why exactly the relationship between the Ganges and the Hindu religion results in a predicament that makes it difficult to fight pollution in the Ganges, we must first address the basic beliefs of Hinduism and its geographic scale. Hinduism is one of the five major world religions and it has often been identified as both the world’s oldest religion as well as the world’s third largest religion. The religion itself has close to 1.15 billion followers (“Hinduism” 2018) and has an increasingly complex and dynamic set of beliefs that have caused it to be labeled as a way of life rather than a religion in some cases. According to the Supreme Court of India,

“Unlike other religions in the World, the Hindu religion does not claim any one Prophet, it does not worship any one God, it does not believe in any one philosophic concept, it does not follow any one act of religious rites or performances; in fact, it does not satisfy the traditional features of a religion or creed. It is a way of life and nothing more” (“Hinduism” 2018).

And it is this fact alone, that Hinduism is not just a religion, but a way of life, that impacts the strength and control that Hinduism has over its followers lives and decisions. Along with the assertion that Hinduism is a way of life, the key beliefs and attributes of Hinduism can also help to explain Hindu life. The key beliefs of Hinduism include a belief in reincarnation, cremation, the four main goals in life; Dharma, Artha, Kama, and Moksha, and most importantly, the belief in a plethora of Gods and Goddesses. Hinduism is a polytheistic religion where thousands of gods, goddesses, demons, and supernatural figures populate theology. According to Hitchcock (2012), “It is a complicated, shifting, and intertwining cast of characters, another way in which the Hindu religion thrives on diversity” (Hitchcock 2012, 110). The polytheistic nature of Hinduism is present not just in basic theology, but in other tenets of the religion as well. Natural Hindu sacred spaces like cities, temples, rivers, and mountains are known to be intimately associated with particular Hindu gods (Hitchcock 2012). This idea is also present within the Hindu Holy Books, the Vedas, which are said to reveal eternal truths and wisdom, “hymn after hymn names and distinguishes the many gods and goddesses of the Vedic universe, frequently associated with things and forces of the natural world” (Hitchcock 2012, 81). This relationship between the powerful and almighty gods and goddesses, and natural space, creates a powerful conflict between Hinduism and environmental interests where the Ganges River is concerned.     In order to understand why the Ganges River is so vital for Hindus, it is important to understand the mechanics of worship within Hinduism. Worship in Hinduism is personal, not communal. “Hindu worship is primarily an individual act rather than a communal one, as it involves making personal offerings to the deity. Worshipers repeat the names of their favorite gods and goddesses and repeat mantras. Water, fruit, flowers and incense are offered to god.” (“Religions – Hinduism” 2005). Additionally, unlike in other religions, like Christianity, temples in Hinduism are not used for communal worship, but they are instead a dwelling place for God where followers typically show reverence and sit or walk the perimeter of the temple, visiting with the gods. Consequently, Hindus do not visit the temple to attend a service or interact with their religious community and the temple is not a place where Hindus can reach their individual goals. What the temples are lacking in for Hindus, the natural sacred spaces make up for. In Hinduism, natural sacred spaces are where followers go to reach their individual religious goals. In reference to the Ganges River, Hindu’s bathe in the Ganges as a cleansing mechanism, to rid themselves of their sins, and they spread the dead’s ashes in the river to halt one of their key beliefs, the cycle of reincarnation.

It is appropriate to call attention to the creation story of the Ganges river as well as Mother Ganga and her role in creating such a sacred space for Hindus in order to grasp how the Ganges elicits such strong feelings. Mother Ganga is a “self-cleaning river god” who lived in heaven but chose to live on earth to purify the sins of those that she came in contact with (Conaway 2016). According to Hindu mythology,

“the Ganges was once a river of heaven that flowed across the sky. Long ago, she agreed to fall to earth to aid a king named Bhagiratha, whose ancestors had been burned to ash by the angry gaze of an ascetic they had disturbed during meditation, and only the purifying waters of the Ganges, flowing over their ashes, could free them from the earth and raise them up to live in peace in heaven” (“Ganges River – India” 2018).

It is Mother Ganga and the story of her purpose for settling on earth that fuels ritual in the Ganges for Hindus, and Bryant’s words capture this perfectly, “It is a place where, according to the myths and legends, the human and divine have been joined, and thus a place where human transformation can occur” (Bryant 1994).  The river serves as a purifier, allowing for transformation and fuels countless dips in the river as well as a multitude of festivals in India, like the Kumbh Mela. In addition to the religious history behind the Ganges, which fuels the purifying nature of the river, the size of the river also plays an important part in determining the role that the Ganges River plays in the lives of both Hindus and Indians.

The Ganges River as a geographic space is extremely vast. The immense size of the river and its site and situation have helped to create somewhat of a lifeline for Hindus and Indians alike, thus impacting the pollution and environmental degradation that weighs so heavily on this natural phenomenon.  The Ganges is a colossal waterway flowing through India that measures more than 1,500 miles from its headwaters to mouth (Hitchcock 2012). The Ganges’s mighty basin ranges from 200 to 400 miles wide, supporting close to half a billion people (“Ganges River – India” 2018). According to Priyam (2012), “The Ganges basin is among the most heavily populated areas in the world with an average density of 520 persons per square kilometer” (Priyam 2012). The extremely high density of the Ganges can allow us to recognize that the Ganges serves a multitude of practical needs of the Indian population as well.

As mentioned previously, both the religious past and the general magnitude of the Ganges impact the purpose that the river serves for humans. Based upon these factors, the river serves the human population’s practical needs and it acts as a purifier for Hindus. In addition to its role as a purifier, it also serves as a unifier, and the many rituals that take place in the Ganges River emphasize this. The holy dip that is so important to Hindus everywhere is best explained by Hitchcock (2012), “For thousands of years, the Hindu faithful have started the day by greeting the river. Mindful of its history, its symbolism, its life-giving force, the Hindu steps into the cool, fresh water, pressing palms together and uttering an ancient prayer, seeking a state of cleanliness in body, mind and spirit” (Hitchcock 2012, 73). To build upon this concise explanation of how Hindus carry out their holy dip and what it means to them in seeking the cleanliness of mind, body, and spirit, the Ganges does not necessarily remove physical dirt, but symbolic dirt, “it wipes away the sins of the bather, not just of the present, but of a lifetime” (“Ganges” 2018). Very specifically, it is the river’s ability to rid Hindus of their sins and cleanse their soul that draws so many Hindus to the Ganges every year to bathe in the river.

The cleansing and purifying nature of the Ganges River as noted above does not only draw in massive numbers of Hindus every year just simply to take their holy dip and rid themselves of their sins, but a large number of Hindus come to the river to experience it’s cleansing powers in the afterlife as well. The significance of the Ganges in reference to death is tied to the factors noted previously, like the Hindu belief in cremation and reincarnation, the creation story of the Ganges and the purpose this gives to the river, and Mother Ganga. But, the city of Varanasi also plays a significant part in ritual within the Ganges in relation to death. Varanasi is the religious capital of both India and Hinduism (Conaway 2016). Within Hinduism, Varanasi is known as the ‘Great Cremation Ground’. It is said that those who are lucky enough to die in Varanasi, are cremated on the banks of the Ganges, and are granted instant salvation, but if death occurs elsewhere, salvation can be achieved by spreading the dead’s ashes in the Ganges (“Ganges” 2018). In doing this, it is believed that they may break the cycle known as ‘samsara’ or birth and rebirth and this will lead them to the achievement of ‘moksha’ or eternal liberation (Conaway 2016). The practice of spreading the ashes of dead Hindus in the Ganges River as a result of basic Hindu beliefs has indefinitely impacted the polluted state of the river itself and the festival known as Kumbh Mela only exacerbates these concerns.

Kumbh Mela is a festival very important to the Hindu religion that represents a blending of two major purposes of the Ganges River. Kumbh Mela is representative of the river’s role as both a purifying entity as well as a unifying entity. Kumbh Mela is a festival that occurs along the Ganges River at Allahabad once every twelve years (“Religions – Hinduism” 2005). More than 10 million Hindus, from all walks of life, gather here for ritual bathing, so that their sins may be washed away and they may feel the cleansing power of the river (“Religions – Hinduism” 2005). When Conaway attended Kumbh Mela, one Hindu’s words captured the unifying strength of the festival, “All of this … the economics, the ritual, the history, the bodies burned or simply dumped, the families over there bathing to wash away their sins, all of this is because of my country’s deep belief in Ganga. Respect for Ganga is what truly unites India” (Conaway 2016). While the Ganges River and the rituals associated to it do indeed bring human beings together through their belief in Hinduism and respect for the Ganges River, it is arguable that the same respect that Conaway’s respondent highlights ultimately leads to disrespect for the river as an environmental feature.  Therefore, the Ganges role as both a purifier and a unifier in Hinduism has increased pollution in the Ganges river in addition to the river’s role that it plays as a practical entity and a dumping ground for industry in India.

The Ganges’s River’s position as a facilitator of practical means for humans, industrial means for the country, and religious means for Hindus, has led to devastating pollution levels that are difficult to combat due to the river’s position as a natural sacred space. Additionally, these high levels of pollution have also had adverse health effects on all Indians. First, as noted above, the city of Varanasi does not just play a role in ritual in the Ganges, but it also plays a role in polluting it. Practical activities as well as religious activities “release around 200 million liters of untreated human sewage into the river each day, leading to large concentrations of fecal coliform bacteria” (“Ganges” 2018).

Studies have shown that water safe for bathing should not contain more than 500 fecal coliforms per 100ml but the water in the Ganges near Varanasi contains 120 times as much with 60,000 fecal coliforms per 100 ml. (“Ganges” 2018). Consequently, according to this information, it is not safe for Hindus to be taking their ‘holy dip’. Also, with reference to Varanasi and Hindu religious practices impacting pollution in the Ganges, the significance of releasing human remains into the river in order to end the cycle of rebirth boosts contamination in the river. In the city, more than 40,000 cremations are performed each year and there are thousands more who cannot afford to have their dead cremated, so both cremated bodies and non-cremated bodies are simply thrown into the river daily, causing pollution levels to rise (“Ganges River” 2018). Second, the push towards modernization in India has led to an increase in the expansion of industry and also the population, which as Priyam (2012) notes, has reduced the Ganges to “a convenient means of waste disposal” (Priyam 2012). What the Ganges has been otherwise reduced to, heavily impacts the state of the river, thus allowing pollution rates to skyrocket. This assertion is backed up by a statement made by the Central Pollution Control Board of India (CPCB), which stated that the main source of pollution in the Ganges River is urban sewage. They define this as, “industrial liquid waste, large scale bathing of cattle, throwing of dead bodies into the river, and surface run off from solid waste landfills and dumpsites” (Priyam). What the CPCB defined as the leading causes of pollution in the Ganges are related to the Ganges’s role as a home base for religious and industrial interests, and now for practical means. Now, to highlight the practical nature of the Ganges, it includes but is not limited to, providing water for crop irrigation, drinking, cooking, bathing, and laundering. According to Hitchcock, “without the river there would not be life” (Hitchcock 2012, 72), but on the other hand, if current practices continue, there will be no river and the religious and industrial practices that so heavily pollute it will begin to take life away from those that it serves.

The Ganges River’s multiplicitous nature as explored above has most obviously impacted the natural state of the river, leading to high levels of pollution, and in turn this has impacts on human health and could have the potential to again, take life away. It is known that, “some 800,000 gallons of sewage flow into the Ganges each day and the result of this pollution is an array of water-borne diseases including, cholera, hepatitis, typhoid and amoebic dysentery.” (“Ganges River – India” 2018). Additionally, it is estimated that about 80% of all health problems and close to one-third of deaths in India are attributed to water-borne diseases (“Ganges” 2018). Water is essential for life, but even more essential to the Hindu way of life. With current practices leading to increased pollution rates in the Ganges River, the practice of simply taking a ‘holy dip’ like so many Hindus are accustomed to could have detrimental impacts, leading to disease or even death. Yet, it is important to note that the Hindu practice of cremation, contribute to the possible dangers that Hindu’s experience every day when they bathe in the Ganges. Therefore, Hindus are thus supporting pollution in the Ganges and endangering themselves and their fellow Hindus. It is this conflict of interest between the Hindu beliefs and concern for the environmental condition of the river that have made it so difficult to combat pollution in the Ganges, but that is not to say that efforts have not been put forth towards fighting pollution in the river.

India has put forth official efforts to combat the pressing issue of pollution in the Ganges, but ultimately these efforts have not been successful. One of the most notable efforts to combat pollution in the Ganges River is the Ganga Action Plan, otherwise known as GAP. GAP was introduced in 1985 with the primary objective of cleaning the river (Priyam 2012). However, the program was said to be characterized by centralized planning and control which ultimately led to low levels of public participation. The time period that GAP was implemented exhibits the idea that pollution in the Ganges is nothing new and if anything, the issue has only continued to grow. According to a report published by the Comptroller and Auditor General of India, by the year 2000, some fifteen years after the emergence of the program, “GAP had achieved only 39 percent of its proposed target for sewage treatment, consuming 91 percent of its budget allocation” (Priyam 2012). As previously states, GAP consisted of high levels of centralized planning and control from the central government of India, meaning that local government institutions were largely missing from the organizational structure of this program. Yet, the structure of GAP required the implementation of GAP projects to be carried out at the local level. This included setting up new sewage treatment plants, renovating existing plants, and expanding sewage networks, but these local governments did not have the means to take up such complex projects (Priyam 2012). Therefore, it isn’t very surprising that the initiatives GAP was trying to implement to improve the status of the river were ineffectual. An additional criticism of GAP relates to the top down approach that it adopted. This critique asserts that a top down, technocratic approach to pollution control that does not take into account the large, multifaceted community that is India. It has consequently produced a differing set of results than originally intended. Priyam (2012) argues that GAP was willing to overlook the importance of people’s everyday relationships with the river and the program did not involve sharing information and its goals with the public (Priyam 2012). Consequently, this led to an absence of decision making and shared prioritization among the public where GAP was concerned. In conclusion, GAP failed due to its inability to recognize the sacred concerns of the Hindu community and incorporate them with their secular concerns about the environment.

Even though the well-known initiative, Ganga Action Plan was unable to combat the polluted Ganges River, there is hope under differing programs that approach the problem differently. For example, when the Prime Minister of India declared the Ganges a National River, he also set up the National Ganga River Basin Project (NGRBP) (Priyam 2012). This program abandons the top down approach that GAP had for one that works to “build the capacity of local institutions to manage a comprehensive Ganges clean up and conservation program, and to reduce point source pollution loads through sustainable interventions at selected locations” (Priyam 2012). While the NGRBP’s structure has improved from GAP’s, it still does not address the sacred concerns about the river and until they can do so, the fate of the Ganges will continue to remain uncertain given the religious association with it. As Conaway (2016) notes, “the mythological idea of the Ganga is indeed more valued than the river itself” (Conaway 2016). This is because the Hindu belief system is intricately connected to the river, which makes it extremely difficult to separate the sacred from the secular in reference to the Ganges. Veer Badra Mishra is a Hindu priest and also a civil engineer who advocates for the need to balance ancient beliefs with present-day solutions, but he even recognizes his own downfalls concerning the river, “There is a struggle and turmoil inside my heart … I want to take a holy dip – I need it to live. The day does not begin for me without the holy dip” (Hitchcock 2012, 121). Even someone who is educated about the current state of the Ganges and the dangers that are associated with it has a difficult time breaking the relationship that the Hindu belief system was created with the river itself. Hence, how can the millions of Hindus who are not as educated as Mishra be expected to halt their religious practices in the name of the environmental sanity of the river. Therefore, will the state of the Ganges ever improve?

To conclude, as noted above, the Ganges River is a waterway with varied purposes that have unfortunately led to the presence of high levels of pollution in the river. These high levels of pollution are impacting the environment and the river itself, but also the life of both Hindus and Indians alike as they continue to interact with the River on a day to day basis. The assorted roles that the river adopts coincide with the swelling pollution levels in the Ganges. These parts that the river plays include its role as a natural sacred space in Hinduism, the river’s role as a polluted dumping ground as a result of industrialization in India, and the river’s role in serving the practical needs of the people of India. Within the state of India and the Hindu religion, the parts that the Ganges plays in people’s lives are extremely vital in the preservation of religious beliefs and values, as well as everyday activities that people depend on. While the river’s importance in Hindu ritual may seem like the most uncomplicated role of the three to address when working to combat pollution in the Ganges, that speculation is false. Simply telling Hindus to stop taking a dip in the Ganges, or to stop spreading the ashes and remains of their dead in the river, is not quite as simple and straightforward as it may seem. The Hindu way of life is tied to this waterway and its cleansing powers. Therefore, in spite of the rising pollution levels in the Ganges, the intricate connection between Hinduism and the Ganges has made it very difficult for the situation to be addressed and fixed, which leads many to wonder about the fate of the river and the religion itself.

Works Cited

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Bryant, M. D. 1994. “River of Grace: The Kumbha Mela as a Sacred Place.” Environments 22 (2): 34-40. http://ezproxy.umw.edu/login?url=https://search.proquest.com/docview/207673527?accountid=12299.

Conaway, Cameron. 2016. “The Ganges River Is Dying Under the Weight of Modern India.” Newsweek. April 20. http://www.newsweek.com/2015/10/02/ganges-river-dying-under-weight-modern-india-375347.html.

Das, Priyam, and Kenneth R. Tamminga. 2012. “The Ganges and the GAP: An Assessment of Efforts to Clean a Sacred River.” Sustainability4 (8): 1647–68. doi:10.3390/su4081647.

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