The divinity of a space is relative, space is sacred based on who considers it sacred. Space is not sacred based on who truly believes it to be such, but rather who can identify that the space is sacred to some being. Consideration for the history, culture, and most importantly, in some cases, religion, is what turns spaces from the profane to the sacred. Consideration for Islam is what turns Mecca from a city in the desert to a pilgrimage. Consideration for the archaeological history is what turns the mysterious Stonehenge into a burial ground. And finally, consideration for the NFL in the United States, is what turns a Seahawks fan’s shrine to Russell Wilson into his safe haven. Consideration brings the context that without it would fail to explain the importance of certain spaces.

Forms of sacred space can range from cosmic to macro scales. In the middle of this range you find the holy city. Sacred cities hold a large significance within the discipline of geography and to religion. They have been prevalent in different religions for hundreds, some thousands, of years. Different faiths have developed and progressed within these spaces. They can be established based off various components such as structures, holy events, or even where they are situated within the world in conjunction to the cosmos.  Devotees routinely visit these cities as a show of good faith. Furthermore, pilgrimages to these cities contribute to their success or decline of their economies. In the section “Sacred Cities” by Abigail Hunt,  there is a focus on four sacred cities, Jerusalem Israel, Lhasa Tibet, Varanasi India and Mecca Saudi Arabia. The analysis will consider the circumstances contributing to manifestation as a sacred city, its influence on religious followers, and how the presence of religion within the city has contributed to its economy.

Often times, sacred spaces are developed through religion, however history and overall culture can influence not only the construction of a space, but also its surrounding area. These both real and constructivist aspects are important when exploring the facets of the geography of religion. In her section titled “The Alhambra: Real and Constructed Significance” by Rachel Lynch, the argument of which aspects defines a space’s divine significance is explored, and how it can be applied to the case of the Alhambra and her surrounding city. It can be argued that the Alhambra is in between forms of sacred space, as not only is it a structure, but its sphere of influence extends into the surrounding civilization, historically and today. The Alhambra and the surrounding city of Granada is tucked away in the Andalusian mountain range. The location of the Moorish structure is important to not only the architects and their culture, but also for preceding groups of people who found sanctity in the palace. The city of Granada and her Alhambra palace holds a certain level of sacredness. Although that sacredness without a doubt was much more prevalent in the past, its religious qualities and historical aspects still ring through not only the palace but also the city. The Alhambra can be considered a sacred structure given its history of construction and leadership, of which both are highly influenced by religion and conflicts stemming from religion. The Red Castle was originally built as a fortress to house Moorish soldiers as they were fighting the Visigoths for control over the Iberian peninsula, and over its course of existence in the Islamic Empire, was used by Islamic Spanish refugees during La Reconquista. Today, the historical Alhambra sits atop a hill overlooking the city, and continues to be the city’s main tourist attraction.

John Lenox explores in his paper “Sacred Machu Picchu” the location, religious structures and sacred stone work of Machu Picchu. Machu Picchu is a site in the mountains of Peru that is seen as sacred to the indigenous people but has now become the most visited site in all of South America (Brogan).  Machu Picchu was used by Incas during their reign, but was hidden from the Spanish Conquistadors, thus the city was lost to all but the local people until 1911 when it was revealed to the world. The beauty of Machu Picchu is world class, it is nestled away in the rainforest 2000 ft above the Urubamba River valley in the remote Andes Mountains.  There are places within Machu Picchu that were used for religious ceremonies such as the Temple of The Three Windows and Temple of The Sun.  The construction of these religiously important places uses a different kind of construction than is used in the agriculture and residential  sections of Machu Picchu.  The stone work of these structures are above and beyond the ability of Inca, using stones weighing up to 100 tons cut to a precision so great that they require no mortar.  This leads to the idea that the site was originally built by some other ancient civilization using greater technology and then found later by the Incan and built up around it, recognizing the importance of the place.  The sacredness of Machu Picchu is undeniable as it connects us to the past and places us in a location that exceeds the scale of human history.

In “Religion in South Korea”, Zachary Goshorn researches the way in which religions coexist and thrive in South Korea. Many of the major world religions, including Buddhism and Christianity, have a presence in South Korea. Most interestingly is that there is no majority religious group, and the way in which all of them are able to coexist with each other and the indigenous beliefs of the nation, Shamanism. In this section, the scale of sacred is explored within the bounds of a country, and the way that several religions can be practiced and expressed within the same spatial boundary.

Each of these religions has sacred structures located within the borders of the country. For example, Buddhist Temples and Shrines are located throughout the country. One example is the Bulguksa Temple, built in 528 C.E. during the Silla Kingdom. Another is Sanbang-sa Temple, which is located on an island off the coast of the peninsula. Within these temples there are also representations and the sense that the presence of Korean Shamanism is alive and well within the space. In Buddhist temples, there are small shrines dedicated to several spirits that are held in especially high regard,including Sanshin, the Mountain Spirit, Toksong, the Recluse, and Chilsong, the Spirit of the Seven Stars. There are also examples of Christian structures and sacred spaces, such as large churches to several Protestant denominations, as well as a handful of Catholic churches and shrines. Religion in South Korea is multifaceted as well as quite interdenominational, and is expressed in the variety of religions represented in the sacred sites found within the country.

There is an abundance of sacred spaces within our world, all with individual meanings unique to the person considering it sacred. However, it can be argued that some structures and cities are considered more universally sacred given the historical significance, or its presence to multiple different groups of people.

Works Cited:

Brogan, Ayngelina. “10 Places You Cannot Miss in South America.” TripSavvy. Accessed April 18, 2018. https://www.tripsavvy.com/top-south-america-tourism-destinations-1637262.

“Moors.” “Moors.” The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th Ed. 2018. Accessed April 19, 2018. https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/asia-and-africa/north-african-history/moors.

Sacred Cities

By Abigail Hunt

The geography of religion has expanded its scope of study in recent years. The scale of sacred spaces has been expanded from cosmic scale all the way to micro scales (Stump, 2008). As geographer Jillian Stump explained in his book The Geography of Religion: Faith, Place and Space, the largest and broadest scale is “the above perspective” explaining a planetary view of space that can be authentic and imagined (Stump, 2008). From here, he cascades down the divisions of sacred spaces from the holy lands, to natural spaces, sacred municipalities, unique local spaces, ordinary local spaces and space occupied by sacred items.  In this section we examine the significance of sacred cities. Sacred cities have been around since early histories of religion and faith. They play a key role in the development and progression in different religions. Sacred structures most often determine the location of sacred cities. Other contributors to the region can be the plausibility that a god or religious leader was born there, or the occurrence of holy chronicle events. The perception of cities sacredness is in the eye of the worshipper.  Followers of different religions make journeys to these places as a show of good faith and devotion to faith. Further, these cities and their neighboring localities are able to maintain a stable or unstable economy by appealing to religious followers as well as tourists and researchers. This paper will be focusing primarily on four cities, Jerusalem Israel, Lhasa Tibet, Varanasi India and Mecca Saudi Arabia. It will explore the key factors contributing to its manifestation as a sacred city, their influence on religious followers and how it has persisted over time.

Many geographers have taken a like to how religious meaning affects space. Religious systems have been around for as long as 5,000 years, with the oldest perceived religion being Mesopotamian religion practiced by the Egyptians dating back to 4000 BCE (Mark, 2018). Although many sacred cities have been around for just as long if not longer than the development of religions. A city is defined in the Merrian-Webster dictionary as “an inhabited place of greater size, population, or importance than a town or village”. The key word to emphasize in this definition is importance. Sacred cities are very important to followers of religion.  In some cases they can sprout a spiritual connection between the people and higher deities, similar to going to a house of worship but on a larger and more spatially spread fashion. The artifactual features are more valued than its physical and natural characteristics. Many of these spaces have headquarters, often in the center of the city. These are generally “shrines, seminaries, residence of the leading cleric of the religion and/or chambers of the religious leadership’s offices” (Wikipedia, 2018).  In some of these sacred cities there is a ceremonial time of year when the city is most visited. This could be a religious holy day, holiday, a season, or a time during even celestial cycle.  Although all of these cities are conceptually similar, they all have their own attributes as to why they are so holy. This can be due to the difference in religious practices or the importance the hold to religious devotees.

First we will examine the holy city of Jerusalem located in Israel. Jerusalem is very significant in within religion, in general. It is the oldest city in the world. It is holds great significance to Christianity, Islam and Judaism with many of their holy sites at the heart of the city.  Throughout history the city has been demolished and reconstructed a countless amount of times. Central Jerusalem can be divided up in four regions, the Christian quarter, the Armenian quarter, the Muslim quarter, and the Jewish quarter (BBC, 2014).  All four quarters contain holy structures sites that are sacred between each religion in within history. The Christian quarter is home to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. The church is established as the place where Jesus of Nazareth was both crucified and his tomb (Church of the Holy Sepulchre, 2018).  Devote Christens have been making pilgrimage here for centuries. The original structure was built in 330 A.D by the mother of Emperor Constantine (Bible Places, 2018). It has been destroyed and rebuild several times during the Crusader Facade, first in 614 A.D, and then in 1009 by the Egyptians. Most of the structure you see today was reconstructed by the Crusaders who built it up from bedrock (Bible Places, 2018). Archeologists determine that the Jesus’s crucifixion would have happened just outside its gates. There are a number of burial shafts located within the church that are believed to be preserved from around the time of Christ’s death. Evidence supports that one of these tombs belonged to Jesus of Nazareth (Bible Places, 2018). These sacred grounds are now managed by the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate (BBC, 2014). The Muslim quarter is home to two holy sites, the al-Aqsa Mosque and right next to it most notably one of the most famous shrines in the world known as the Dome of the Rock (BBC, 2014). History and tradition state that Prophet Muhammad migrated to the mosque from Mecca during his expedition and “prayed with the souls of the prophets” (BBC, 2014). At the dome of the rock, Muhammad is thought to ascend into heaven(BBC, 2014). Muslims make pilgrimage here throughout the year, but the site is most popular during the holy month of Ramadan. Every Friday of this month thousands of Muslims pray at the mosque (BBC, 2014). The Western Wall is located within the Jewish quarter. The wall is all the remains of the “retaining wall of the mount on which the Holy Temple once stood” (BBC, 2014). Within the temple is the Holy of Holies, a site in which Jews believe the world was created and where Abraham was believed to have been when he was almost sacrificed Isaac (BBC, 2014). Today its managed by the Rabbi, and is a very popular pilgrimage site for those who practice Jewish religion. The Armenian quarter was the first quarter to be established in Jerusalem (See the Holy Land, 2017). Within it lies the a “miniature city with residences for more than 1000 families. Behind its fortress-like walls are “the patriarchate, a hospice, living quarters for nuns and priests, a school, social clubs and a printing press (the first one ever in Jerusalem) established in 1833” (See the Holy Land, 2017). The city is also home to the Cathedral of Saint James.  This Cathedral is notorious for its elegant features and decorations, as well as being one of the few churches to still be intact after the Crusades (See the Holy Land, 2017). It is dedicated to holy saints by the names of Saint James the Great, and Saint James the Less. Saint James the great is was one of the first apostles to be a follower of Jesus, and Saint James the Less was a relative of Jesus and the first bishop of Jerusalem (See the Holy Land, 2017). The city of Jerusalem holds a special place in the hearts of millions of followers of religion. Its very ground is a strong attest to its history and its significance to the world.

The second sacred city to be addressed is Lhasa, the capital of Tibet. It is located on the north bank of River Lhasa (China Tour Guide, 2018). The name of the city is translated in Tibetan as “The Land Of The Gods”, most likely because it sits at an altitude of 12,139 feet (China Tour Guide, 2018). In the 11th century the city became home to Tibetan monks as Buddhism spread throughout China (China Tour Guide, 2018). At the center of the city is the Potala Palace where the famous Dali Lama, a major religious figure within Tibetan Buddhism, lived until he (the 14th Dali lama) fled to India during the Tibetan uprising (Holy Cities of the World, 2018) (Wikipedia, 2018). There are several sacred sites and places of worship located in this city, but perhaps the most important is the Jokhang Temple. The temple was established in 647 by the first ruler of Tibet King Songtsen Gampo (Sacred Destinations 2018). Behind the temple walls, it hold the “holiest object in all of Tibet”, the Jowo Rinpoche. It is a statue of Buddha and also what the temple was constructed for in the first place (Sacred Destinations 2018). You can only tour the temple in the late afternoon, in order not to disrupt the “pilgrims perform their devotions starting at 8am” (Sacred Destinations 2018).  Today, Lhasa is a popular tourist site for followers of Buddhist religion and serves as the central node of Tibet’s political and economic enterprises (China Tour Guide, 2018).

he next city to explore is Varanasi, India. This city is sacred to millions of practicing Hindus around the world. Commonly referred to as the “City of Light” or “Forest of Bliss”, this sacred city is located along the Ganges River, the holiest river and “a symbol of age long culture and civilization” (Hitchock & Esposito, 2008). The river serves as a place to cultivate rice, cleanse the body to rid it of sin, and many sacred rituals (Hitchock & Esposito, 2008). Hindus believe that dying Varanasi, and having their bodies ashes tossed into the river will “release their souls from the cycle of rebirth” (Hitchock & Esposito, 2008). Along the shore of the river are miles of Ghats (steps) that provide people with direct access into the Ganges. (Britannica, 2018) Within the city are over 1,500 temples and shrines (Kidz World, 2018). One of many remarkable sites is the Mosque of Aurangzeb. It features a magnificent blend of Islamic and Hindu architecture (Wikipedia, 2018). It is located in the areas where the “five streams” are said to join (Wikipedia, 2018). Varanasi is known as one of the oldest cities in the world.

The final sacred city to be examined is Mecca. This holy city is situated in the Sirat Mountains of Saudi Arabia. This city is an essential part of Muslim Culture, and only Muslims are aloud to enter the city. It is the birthplace of Muhammad who is the original founder of Islam (Hitchock & Esposito, 2008). Early Mecca was a huge trading node (world Population Review, 2018). To this day the city is so fundamental to Islamic religion that Muslims pray in the direction of Mecca five times a day. In their lifetime, it is critical that all Muslims visit Mecca on a pilgrimage formally known as a Hajj. Making the Hajj is part of the five pillars of Islam. The Hajj is a “recreation of Muhammad’s own path as the native son returned to his tribal home as the leader of a vibrant new religion” (PBS, 2014). Each year over 3 million Muslims take part in the five day journey. It begins in the city of holy city Mecca. People then move five miles south to the Valley of Mina. Here, men and women follow a strict dress code. Men wear two white cloths draped around the body, and women wear modest clothing (PBS, 2014). At night, they stay in tents for a night dedicated to prayer and contemplation (PBS, 2014). Upon sunrise, the travel nine miles to the Plain of Arafat. The travel up the Mount of Mercy, “the site where Muhammad gave his farewell sermon months before he died” (PBS, 2014) that pilgrims are heard by the gods who “descends to the lower heavens to listen to worshippers’ requests for forgiveness” (PBS, 2014). Next they travel to the Valley of Muzdalifa to collect symbolic stones used in the ceremonial stoning of the several massive stone pillars known as Jamerat. This site is where Abraham is rumored to defy the devil (PBS, 2014). The stoning symbolizes his defiance. The Hajj ends back in Mecca at the Haram Mosque, where millions gather at once to run circles around the great Ka’aba, or “the House of God”, a structure that the Koran states was build by Abraham and Ishmael (PBS, 2014). Although Mecca is most notable for the annual Hajj, it is home to over 1.5 million residence. The city has undergone a plethora of enhancements in the past 20 years however the land will always hold great significance in the eyes of practicing Muslims.

Sacred Cities are founded for many different reasons. Whether it be for its location on the globe or historically holy events that happened there these cities are erected and inhabited out of devotion to a religion. The weight that sacred cities have on different religions give way to the building blocks that some cultures are born from. Jerusalem serves the worlds three most practiced religions, making it perhaps the holiest city in the world.  Lhasa is crucial to Buddhists around the world and throughout the history Buddhism. Varanasi is a paramount city in Hinduism and aids devotees in keeping up with the Hindu way of life. Mecca is indisputably essential to Islamic religious practice. Although these sacred cities are only a part of the many manifestations of sacred spaces, their existence is essential to the sustainability and progression of religion.

Works Cited

Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. “Varanasi.” Encyclopædia Britannica. April 27, 2018. Accessed May 01, 2018.     https://www.britannica.com/place/Varanasi.

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In-text Citations

Sacred Machu Picchu

By John Lenox

Introduction

In the jungle of Peru, atop a steep mountain, sits an ancient city created long ago with incredible construction methods.  This city is Machu Picchu, the seclusion and remote location of Machu Picchu makes it unique.  Most people consider Machu Picchu to be one of the crowing achievements of the Inca people at the peak of there civilization.  The fall of the Inca people is due to the arrival of the Spanish Conquistadors, the Spanish destroyed the Inca and many of their settlements.  Machu Picchu on the other hand was hidden from the Spanish and to all but the local people until 1911 when an American archeologist named Hiram Bingham discovered it and revealed it to the world (History.com Staff, 2011).  So why is Machu Picchu so important and why did the Inca people decide to build in such a challenging location?  The site of Machu was chosen because of its remote location, religious importance, and megalithic construction which show us an important glimpse into the past.  This paper will look at the location of Machu Picchu and three of the most important religious sites within the city, to see why they are sacred to the Inca.  Another goal of this paper is to provide evidence that Machu Picchu was not only built by the Inca, but also by an older much more advanced civilization.  These topics will be explored in the order presented in the thesis above, but first a brief history of Machu Picchu.

A Brief History

The Inca had no written language so there is little evidence about the history of Machu Picchu, most of the history has been passed down orally by the indigenous Quechua people.  There are many theories as to why Machu Picchu was built these include Machu Picchu as a holy nunnery, ceremonial site, military stronghold, or most commonly accepted as a “retreat for the Inca and his family to worship natural resources, deities and specially the Sun, Inti.” (“Why was Machu Picchu built?” n.d.) Inca means emperor or ruler and it is believed that Inca Pachacutec was the ruler who ordered the construction of Machu Picchu.  He ruled from 1438 to 1471 which coincides with the time period that Machu Picchu is believed to be built, 15th century (“Machu Picchu History” n.d.).  Then Machu Picchu was abandoned for some reason and forgotten to all but the local people.  There is no evidence that the Spanish made it to Machu Picchu, because if they did they would most likely have destroyed it because it is one of the most sacred sites to the Inca.  The Spanish destroyed many sites throughout the Incan Empire because Incan religion is in contrast to Christianity.

Hiram Bingham was looking for the capital of the Incan Empire, Vilcabamba, on an expedition in Peru.  He was told by a local farmer about some ruins on top of a nearby mountain, once he climbed the mountain he was amazed by what he saw “Surprise followed surprise until there came the realization that we were in the midst of as wonderful ruins as any ever found in Peru,” he wrote (Eisner 2009).  When he first found Machu Picchu, there were people still living there and he took many artifacts from the site back to Yale where he was a professor.  Hiram Bingham was not the first foreigner to find Machu Picchu though, there had been a few other explorers from Europe that had visited the site but did not publicize their findings to the world.   Since then Machu Picchu has only grown in popularity with over 1.4 million tourists in 2016 (Connolly 2017) and has been designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Sacred Location

The site of Machu Picchu is located in what the Inca people call the Sacred Valley.  The Sacred Valley runs along the Urubamba River between Machu Picchu and Pisac, another Incan city.  On either side of the Urubamba River are the towering peaks of the Andes Mountains, one of which Machu Picchu sits on.  All throughout the Sacred Valley are Inca ruins some of which are the old estates of Inca Emperors.  The Sacred Valley is important to the Inca because it sits lower than all the surrounding land, making it warmer, which is better for growing crops (“Sacred Valley” n.d.).  The floor of the Sacred Valley is covered in agriculture land and along the sides terraces are used it expand the growing land.  One of the primary crops grown by the Inca was corn, corn was used to make chicha, which is an alcoholic drink used during rituals and ceremonies (“Sacred Valley” n.d.).

The city of Machu Picchu is often called the city in the clouds and is placed on top of a mountain at an elevation of 8000 feet.  The height of Machu Picchu is important because it provided the Inca with an unobstructed view of outer space.  The Inca looked to the sky and observed celestial events like the equinoxes which would give them information like when to plant crops (“Why was Machu Picchu built?” n.d.).  The only entrance to Machu Picchu is very narrow path, everyone that enters the city has to enter through the same doorway.  This makes Machu Picchu easily defendable by just a few guards if the city was ever being attacked.  Looking out from the site one will see the steep cliffs of other mountains covered in vegetation from the rainforest. Looking down over the cliffs of Machu Picchu one can see the roaring Urubamba River carving its way around the mountain.  The beauty of nature is combined with the beauty of the ancient construction to create a sacred feeling that one can get in few other places around the world.

Religious Importance

Machu Picchu is split up into three different sectors, Religious, Agriculture, and Residential.  The agriculture section used terraces to grow food for the people dwelling at Machu Picchu.  The residential section is made up of 150 stone houses that were used as shelter for the farmers and servants of Machu Picchu.  The religious section has a few different structures used for religious ceremonies and astrological observation.  The main three structures are the “Intiwatana”, “The Temple of the Sun”, and “The Temple of the Three Windows.” The Intiwatana is called the “hitching post of the sun” and is a carved rock that archeologist believe was used as a sundial or calendar by the Incans (“Machu Picchu: Intiwatana.” 2011).  On June 21, the winter solstice in the southern hemisphere, the stone cast its longest shadow of the year to the south.  On December 21 the stone cast a short shadow to the north and during mid-day on the equinoxes there is no shadow cast and the sun is directly above the stone.  The sun plays a major role in Incan religion; they considered the sun a god and called him Inti.  The sun is important to the Inca because it would indicate changes in the season which tell the Inca when they should plant crops and prepare for winter.  On the winter solstice, when the sun is farthest away in the sky, the local priest would perform a ritual by placing his hand on the rock and saying a prayer for the sun to return (Dunnell 2017).  The Intiwatana is not special to Machu Picchu, most major Incan sites had an Intiwatana stone that would show when the solstices arrive, acting like a calendar.  Most of these stones were destroyed by Spanish Conquistadors, because they were associated closely with the Incan religion.  Actually, the Intiwatana stone at Machu Picchu was damaged while filming a beer commercial when a camera platform fell on it and smashed one of the corners (Pulham 2000).

Another major religious structure at Machu Picchu is The Temple of the Sun which was a sacred room that only the priest and Inca were allowed to enter during ceremonies (Lathrop n.d.).  The Temple of the Sun features a semicircle wall which is very uncommon in Incan construction, the temple also features two windows that line up directly with the summer and winter solstice.  There is also a natural stone alter which the room is built around where animal sacrifices were performed, sacrifices were needed during solar eclipse, because the Incan thought that Inti was mad at them.  Under the Temple of the Sun is a natural cave which some arachnologist think was the resting place of the Inca Pachacutec or served as a place to wordship Mother Earth (“The Temple of the Sun” n.d.).  The sun plays an important role in Incan religion; they worshiped Inti so the sun would return the blessing of light for them.  The Inca rulers believe that they are direct decedents of Inti, this allows them to act as an “intermediary between the gods and ordinary people” (Cartwright 2014).

The Temple of the Three Windows is exactly as it sounds, there are three windows that face east to capture the sunrise. The significance of the three windows is not set in stone, but one of the theories is that the windows represent Tamputocto Mountain which is the mountain from the creation story of the Inca.  The story says that the Ayar brothers stepped out of the mountain through three windows to create the Incan empire (“Temple of the Three Windows.” n.d.).  Another theory is that the three windows represent the three worlds of Incan mythology.  Hanan Pacha, Kay Pacha, and Ukhu Pacha these are different realms of the cosmos, like Christianity’s earth, heaven, and hell.  Hanan Pacha is the upper realm where the sun god, moon god, and stars reside.  Kay Pacha is the inhabitable world were people live, this is the world where there is a cycle of death and rebirth.  Ukhu Pacha is the underworld where people who live an unfit life go when they die.  There are physical connections between the worlds on earth, caves and springs form the connection between Kay and Ukhu Pacha.  Rainbows, rain, and lighting create a connection between Hanan and Kay Pacha, but the most important connection is “Pachakutiq” or cataclysm, this is when all worlds interact reforming the order of worlds (“Pacha (Inca Mythology).” n.d.).  The Temple of The Three Windows meaning and purpose for being built are a mystery, but someone sometime put a lot of work into building it.  Like all the religious structures at Machu Picchu their importance is apparent for their craftmanship is above and beyond all other building in Machu Picchu.

Megalithic Construction

Megalithic construction is construction that uses large stones and dates back to prehistoric times.  Historians think that Machu Picchu was built some time in the 14th or 15th century totally by the Incan.  Historians like to point out the quality of Incan construction and say that they were so precise that the joints between the rocks required no mortar and not even a piece of paper could fit in between the joints.  However, this superior construction only makes up a small portion of Machu Picchu.  When the Incan were first discovered they were not an advanced group and only had the tools equivalent to the bronze age.  These tools could not have shaped the rocks used in the megalithic construction seen above in Figure 2.  The methods used to cut, shape, transport and lift the stones are still unknown.  So how did they build with such fine craftmanship and on such a large scale that we can not even explain it today?

The idea that some archeologist, engineers, and historians are starting to entertain is that Machu Picchu was primarily built by the Incan but there was also a more advanced civilization farther back in history that built a portion of Machu Picchu and then the Incan, at a later date, found the site and continued construction.  “Some experts believe that parts of the city, which Bingham named Machu Picchu (Old Peak), are 60 centuries old, which would make it 1,000 years older than ancient Babylon.” And “By Bingham’s own reckoning, the city was actual a pre-Incan fortress that eventually became a Quechua city” (Rothman 2015).  What Bingham is referring to in this quote are the works in the religious section of Machu Picchu.  The religious section is where most of the megalithic stones are.  The Incan most likely found these stones and recognized their importance and continued to build up around them.  This is why the site of Machu Picchu was chosen, these stones were already in place when the Inca civilization came to be.  Put yourself in the shoes of an indigenous person 600 years ago who climbed to the top of this mountain and found stones weighing several tones placed so perfectly that not even a piece of paper could fit in between the joints.  Would this not seem like a sacred place, a place of unexplainable origins that exceeds your knowledge as a civilization.  On the bottom of the wall there are large rocks fitted together with incredible precision with multiple edges and as you move up the wall the construction becomes inferior using small rocks with gaps between the joints.  This wall shows the megalith construction method combined with Incan construction method to finish the wall.  If this wall were to be built all at the same time why would the two construction methods be so far apart in quality.  Machu Picchu is not the only site in the Incan landscape with megalithic construction.  Many other sites such as Sachsayhuaman  have stones weighing up to 125 tons and have the same precision of craftsmanship as stones in Machu Picchu.  These mysterious large rock structures are a common site in many Incan settlements, even in the capital of Peru, Cuzco.  This means that Machu Picchu is not a special case, the Incan used sites where they found megalithic work to build their settlements.  The older work of ancient people had great importance in their culture and they tried to continue that work by also building at the same sites.  No one can say they know the origins of these mysterious stones, but the current theory that all of Machu Picchu was built during the reign of Inca Pachacutec is not plausible.

These megalithic works do not only occur in the Incan civilization, but around the world unexplainable construction methods were used by ancient cultures to build magnificent sites.  In Lebanon at the site of Baalbek there are three stones left in an ancient quarry weighing over 1000 tones with the largest at an estimated 1,650 tones.  These are the largest stones ever quarried on earth, they were meant for the Temple of Jupiter but never made it (Newman 2014).  Then there are some of the more famous ancient creations like The Pyramids of Giza and Stonehenge which still puzzle people today.  These locations and many more provide evidence of advanced civilizations that could have spread information worldwide.  There are similar styles of stone work found on different continents, if they were able to create such advanced stone cities, what’s to say they could not have sailed the seas spreading this knowledge around the world.

Many historians won’t even entertain the possibility that an older more advanced civilization existed in South America and around the world, because this information would rewrite history.  The idea that the earliest advanced humans came from places like Mesopotamia and Egypt is the foundation of modern history.  To think that humans became advanced and were then wiped off the planet without a trace except for these ancient megalithic works makes us feel less important.  We as humans like to think we are special, the first of our kind to achieve a great amount of knowledge.  As we can see though someone else had achieved great knowledge before us and all that is left are giant stone structures.  We cannot even imagine what there day to day lives were like or what other great abilities they had.  All we can do wish we knew what they knew and speculate wildly about what they were like.

Conclusion  

The story of Machu Picchu has been a long time coming.  The Inca seen the site as sacred because of it’s religious structures and location within the Sacred Valley.  In this one site people from across time have risen and fallen, gods have been worshiped and forgotten, and what is left is a city in ruins being trampled on by visitors in the millions.  What Machu Picchu has shown us is that our history as humans is much longer than is accepted. At least once humans have risen to power gaining great knowledge but fell for some reason to a point where only their architectural works remain.  This rise and fall of humans could have happened multiple times and can still happen in the future.  The history taught in schools is not the complete history of humans but only a small portion of our story on this earth.  We will most likely never know for sure what happened to our advanced ancestors or to what knowledge they gained, but they were here and they deserve are acknowledgement for what they have left us.  Machu Picchu is one of our gateways to the past, it should make us reflect and appreciate what was accomplished by people from that past.

Works Cited

Cartwright, Mark. “Inti.” Ancient History Encyclopedia. March 07, 2014. Accessed May 02, 2018. https://www.ancient.eu/Inti/.

Connolly, Colleen. “‘Lost City’ No More, Machu Picchu Feels the Strain of Booming Tourism.” Chicagotribune.com. May 31, 2017. Accessed May 02, 2018. http://www.chicagotribune.com/lifestyles/travel/ct-machu-picchu-tourism-boom-dangers-travel-0611-20170526-story.html.

Dunnell, Tony. “A Guide To The Main Structures Of Machu Picchu.” South American Vacations. July 29, 2017. Accessed May 02, 2018. https://www.savacations.com/guide-main-structures-machu-picchu/.

Eisner, Peter. “Who Discovered Machu Picchu?” Smithsonian.com. March 01, 2009. Accessed May 02, 2018. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/who-discovered-machu-picchu-52654657/.

History.com, Staff. “Machu Picchu.” History.com. 2011. Accessed May 01, 2018. https://www.history.com/topics/machu-picchu.

Lathrop, Jessica M. “Temple of the Sun at Machu Picchu: History & Facts.” Study.com. Accessed May 02, 2018. https://study.com/academy/lesson/temple-of-the-sun-at-machu-picchu-history-facts.html.

“Machu Picchu History.” Customized Peru Packages – MachuPicchu.org. Accessed May 02, 2018. https://www.machupicchu.org/machu_picchu_history.htm.

“Machu Picchu: Intiwatana.” Destination: Machu Picchu. 2011. Accessed May 02, 2018. http://www.peru-machu-picchu.com/intiwatana.php.

Newman, Hugh. “The Forgotten Stones of Baalbek, Lebanon.” Ancient Origins. July 19, 2014. Accessed May 02, 2018. http://www.ancient-origins.net/opinion-guest-authors/forgotten-stones-baalbek-lebanon-001865.

“Pacha (Inca Mythology).” Revolvy. Accessed May 02, 2018. https://www.revolvy.com/main/index.php?s

Rothman, Lily. “Machu Picchu and Hiram Bingham: What He Got Wrong.” Time. July 24, 2015. Accessed May 02, 2018. http://time.com/3962462/machu-picchu-hiram-bingham/.

“Sacred Valley.” n.d. Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacred_Valley (accessed May 2, 2018)

“Temple of the Three Windows.” MACHU PICCHU GATEWAY. Accessed May 02, 2018. https://www.machupicchu.org/ruins/temple_of_the_three_windows.htm.

“Why Was Machu Picchu Built?” Discover Peru. Accessed May 01, 2018. http://www.discover-peru.org/machu-picchu-reason/.

Religion in South Korea

By Zachary Goshorn

Introduction

Many of the major world religions, including Buddhism and Christianity, have a presence in South Korea. Most interestingly is that there is no majority religious group, and the way in which all of them are able to coexist with each other and the indigenous beliefs of the nation, Shamanism. In this research paper, I will examine some of the religions practiced in South Korea, as well as several Sacred Sites found in the country. Additionally, I will explore what makes the sites selected sacred to South Koreans. I will begin by explaining the religious makeup of South Korea, covering some of the historic background that led to the current religious climate of the nation. Interspersed will be elements commonly found within a literature review of the sources that discuss religion in the nation, as well as several sacred sites found in South Korea. I will also analyze the sacred sites, and what contributes to their sacredness. There are numerous sites that represent several of the different religions that are practiced, including temples, shrines, and churches. Religion in South Korea is multifaceted as well as quite interdenominational, and is expressed in the variety of religions represented in the sacred sites found within the country.

Religious Makeup of South Korea

There is a large amount of diversity in the religions practiced in South Korea. According to the Korean Statistical Information Service, data retrieved from the 2005 census shows that 23% of the population of South Korea has declared their religious affiliation as ‘Buddhist,’ 18% as ‘Protestant,’ 11% as ‘Catholic,’ and 1% as ‘other religions,’ (KOSIS, 2005). In addition to these ‘affiliated’ with a religion, the majority of the population, 46%, instead have declared ‘no affiliation’ as their religious affiliation (KOSIS, 2005). These percentages clearly show a diversity in the religions practiced, as well as the large population of ‘religiously unaffiliated’. However, these numbers are not necessarily concrete and separate populations. They completely neglects to account those that follow the rituals and practices associated with Shamanism, and they do not consider that for many, some aspects of faith are not necessarily religious, but instead part of an ethical code, such as in the case of Confucianism. For example, there “are also a substantial number of people who count themselves as Christians, but who also follow the traditions and practices of Confucianism, key among which are prayers and rituals to revere the family ancestors at certain times of the year,” (“Religion in Korea” 2017). Additionally, “… the number of Buddhists may actually be smaller than the statistics indicate because many clients of shaman say they are Buddhists on government surveys because there is a stigma attached to believing in sprits in modern, high-tech Korea,” (“Religion in Korea” 2017). While there may be a stigma, “as of 2012, South Korea had low levels of government restrictions on religion and social hostilities toward or among religious groups,” based on Pew Research analysis, meaning that South Korea has a high degree of religious tolerance from both the government and socially (Connor 2014). Based on 0 to 10 point scales, South Korea ranks 0.3 on the Social Hostilities Index, and 1.8 on the Government Restrictions Index, which compared to the United States of America rankings at 1.9 and 3.7 respectively, it is clear to see the high degree of religious tolerance (Connor 2014).

Similar to most secular nations, religion still has an effect on many people’s daily life. It is important to note that the “… cultural impacts of these movements is far more widespread than the number of formal adherents suggests,” (“Religion in Korea” 2017). In a way similar to how some Christians appear in church only on significant holidays, such as Christmas and Easter, “… in South Korea, people flock to Buddhist temples on Buddha’s birthday, offering donations for prayers that get written on slips of paper and hung under colorful lanterns at the temples,” (“Religion in Korea” 2017). Additionally, it is common for religious practices to intersect and overlay with aspects of daily life. For example, “during the days preceding the nationwide college entrance exam, the Buddhist temples are packed with mothers and grandmothers of high school seniors making donations and offering prayers in the hopes of good exam grades,” or “on important anniversary dates, jesa rituals are held to honor the family ancestors, with an elaborately prepared offering table full of food,” (“Religion in Korea” 2017).  Now that I have discussed the multifaceted elements of religious practices in South Korea, I will discuss elements of the significant religions in greater detail.

Korean Shamanism

To begin diving more deeply into the topic, a discussion of religion in South Korea must begin with shamanism, likely the oldest religion practiced on the peninsula. “The term “shama” derives from Siberia and Central Asia, from the Tungusc ‘saman’ and has been applied widely to refer to those experiences best described in Mircea Eliade’s classic work, Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy,” (“Korean Shamanism.”, 2014). “Eliade calls shamanism a “technique of ecstasy,” distinguished from forms of magic, sorcery, or even experiences of religious ecstasy,” (“Korean Shamanism.”, 2014). This feeling of ‘ecstasy’, aligns with many similar feelings individuals feel when that take part in activities that they deem and feel are sacred.

According to the book South Korea: A Country Study, written by members of the Federal Research Division of the United States of America’s Library of Congress, “Koreans, like other East Asians, have traditionally been eclectic rather than exclusive in their religious commitments,” (Savada and Shaw, 1992). Rather than an exclusive religious adherence, “… religious outlook has not been conditioned by a single, exclusive faith but by a combination of indigenous beliefs and creeds imported into Korea,” (Savada and Shaw, 1992). As I mentioned in the previous section, “Koreans, while committed to Buddhism, Christianity, or Confucianism, tend to imbue their faith with Shamanistic beliefs and practices,” (“Korean Shamanism.”, 2014). For example, “In the past, such shamanistic rites have included agricultural ceremonies, such as prayers for abundant harvest,” (“Korean Shamanism.”, 2014).

Shamanism, or “belief in a world inhabited by spirits is probably the oldest form of Korean religious life, dating back to prehistoric times,” marking Shamanism the oldest example of religious expression in South Korea (Savada and Shaw, 1992). In the way that most religions attempt to explain human existence, and ease it, “Korean shamanism seeks to solve human problems through invoking the aid of spirits in the Korean shaman pantheon,” (“Korean Shamanism.”, 2014). Comparable in a way similar to the Pantheon of Hinduism or the Yōkai of Japanese folklore, “There is a rather unorganized pantheon of literally millions of gods, sprits and ghosts, ranging from ‘god generals’ who rule the different quarters of heaven to mountain spirits,” (Savada and Shaw, 1992).

Integral to Korean Shamanism are the Shaman themselves, and the rituals, or gut, that they perform. The shaman, mainly women, are “enlisted by those who want the help of the spirit world,” to perform a gut (a ritual or religious service), in order “… to gain good fortune for clients, cure illnesses by exorcising evil spirits, or propitiate local or village gods,” (Savada and Shaw, 1992). Of these spirits, three are held in especially high regard. They are Sanshin, the Mountain Spirit, Toksong, the Recluse, and Chilsong, the Spirit of the Seven Stars (The Big Dipper), (“Korean Buddhism,” 2015).

While Korean Shamanism relies heavily on ritual and human agency, there are also spaces that are sacred. Many of them are typically natural locations, such as a sacred spots near a mountain, stream, or even near a sacred tree (Garrigues, 2018). As I move on to the next religion that I will discuss, Buddhism, many of the sites that are sacred Korean Shamanist sites have had Buddhist shrines constructed on or near them due to the ability for the two belief systems to blend.

Buddhism in South Korea

Buddhism, as one of the oldest of the world religions, has made a definitive mark on the religious landscape in South Korea, and through its effect on the cultural landscape, as well as its effect on the physical landscape by the sacred structures and spaces. Korean Buddhism is “… distinguished from other forms of Buddhism by its attempt to resolve what it sees as inconsistences in Chinese Mahayana Buddhism,” (“Korean Buddhism,” 2015). This was due to the fact that, “early Korean monks believed that traditions they received from China were internally inconsistent, to address this, they developed a new holistic approach to Buddhism,” (“Korean Buddhism,” 2015). This new holistic approach,” is characteristic of virtually all major Korean thinkers, and has resulted in a distinct variation of Buddhism, which Wonhyo [(one of the leading philosophers of Korean Buddhism)] (617–686) called the Tongbulgyo (“interpenetrated Buddhism”),” (“Korean Buddhism,” 2015). In this sense, Buddhism was mixed and merged, but the question arises, what was Buddhism mixed with? Simply put, Korean Shamanism.

When Buddhism first came to Korea from China in 372 C.E., or 800 years after the death of the historical Buddha, it encountered the indigenous religion, Shamanism (“Korean Buddhism,” 2015). Interestingly, “Seen as harmonious with the rites of nature worship, Buddhism blended with Shamanism,” (“Korean Buddhism,” 2015). As many aspects of Buddhism can be seen as a philosophy that guides an adherent’s way of life, and Korean Shamanism as a belief system, neither have much conflict with each other, if any at all, it is clear to see the natural ability for the two to coexist. Owing to this coexistence, the mountains of the peninsula are, “… believed [to be] the residence of spirits in pre-Buddhist times, became the sites of Buddhist temples,” (“Korean Buddhism,” 2015). As previously mentioned, three spirits are held in “…especially high regard, Sanshin …, Toksong…, and Chilsong…,” (“Korean Buddhism,” 2015). Korean Buddhism “accepted and absorbed those three spirits and, even today, monks set aside special shrines for them in many temples,” (“Korean Buddhism,” 2015). At many temples, “the Mountain Spirit receives particular recognition in an attempt to appease the local mountain spirits, on whose land the [respective] temple stands,” (“Korean Buddhism,” 2015).

One such is the Bulguksa Temple. Bulguksa Temple was built in 528 C.E. during the Silla Kingdom, “in the 15th year of King Beop-Heung’s reign (514 C.E.-540 C.E.),” (“Bulguksa Temple” 2018). Originally “called ‘Hwaeom Bulguksa Temple’ or ‘Beropryusa Temple,’” and was rebuilt several times over the next several hundred years, and upon completion of its rebuilding during the reign of King Hye-Gong in 774 C.E., the temple’s name was changed to its current, Bulguksa Temple, (“Bulguksa Temple” 2018). In 1995, the temple was designated a World Cultural Asset by UNESCO in 1995. Today, the temple is home to many important cultural relics, including several national treasures (“Bulguksa Temple” 2018). The age of the temple, as well as it being the home to several items of cultural significance contribute to its sacredness.

Though many temples are located on or near one of the many mountains found in South Korea, this by no means limits temples to the mountains. For example, Sanbang-sa Temple, located sixty miles off the southwestern corner of the Korean peninsula stands the island on the island of Cheju-Do, is one such temple (Gray, 2017). “Only 700 square miles in area, the island is completely dominated by the extinct volcano cone of Halla San, and at 5850 feet (1950 meters), Halla San is the highest peak in all of South Korea.” (Gray, 2017). The grandness and scale of the mountain in comparison to the island on which it resides contributes to the sacredness felt when going to the site. Located, “In the middle of the volcanic crater atop Halla San lies a small lake called Baengnok-dam, or White Deer Lake,” (Gray, 2017). This natural space must instill a sense of awe to any who visit. “Farther down the mountain, near the southwest coast, is the cave temple of Sanbang-sa, once a … shrine, now a Buddhist sanctuary,” (Gray, 2017). Like many current Buddhist temples, this one was formerly only a Shamanistic shrine.

In addition to Buddhist temples, there are also Christian churches and shrines of varying denominations.

Christianity in South Korea

Christianity, while being another of the world’s oldest practicing religions, is relatively new to the Korean Peninsula. “East Asia was one of the last areas to receive Christianity, beginning in about the seventeenth century,” (“Christianity in Korea,” 2017). “Roman Catholic missionaries did not arrive in Korea until 1794,” and it was not until the 1880s that Protestant missionaries entered Korea, (“Religion in Korea,” 2017). According to Pew Research, “in 1900, only 1% of the country’s population was Christian, but largely through the efforts of missionaries and churches, Christianity has grown rapidly in South Korea over the past century. In 2010, roughly three-in-ten South Koreans were Christian, including members of the world’s largest Pentecostal church, Yoido Full Gospel Church, in Seoul,” (Connor, 2014). Several sacred Christian sites include the Catholic Jeoldusan Martyrs’ Shrine and the Seoul Anglican Cathedral English Mission.

The Jeoldusan Martyrs’ Shrine is a Catholic shrine located on the Han River, and is dedicated to those who gave up their lives during the Byeongin persecutions of 1866 (“Jeoldusan Martyrs’ Shrine.” 2018). “In late 1866, nine French missionaries were martyred, This caused two attempted invasions into Korea by a French fleet, After the attempted invasions, the Joseon government punished, targeted, and brutally murdered many French and native Korean Roman Catholics, The place became known as “beheading mountain,” (“Jeoldusan Martyrs’ Shrine.” 2018). Due to his tragic history, this site is significant to Catholics, and also the site is still significant today. The property was acquired by the Catholic Church in 1956, and on May 3rd, 1984 Pope John Paul II visited, (“Jeoldusan Martyrs’ Shrine.” 2018).

The next sacred site that I will discuss is the Seoul Anglican Cathedral. Located in the capital of South Korea, the “English Mission began with the provision of English Anglican services for the foreign community in Seoul in the environs of what is now Seoul Anglican Cathedral on Christmas Eve 1891,” (“The English Mission of the Seoul Anglican Cathedral: About Us.” 2018). An interesting point that adds to the character and sacredness of this church is “The English Mission provides Anglican religious services and pastoral care to members of Seoul’s foreign community who wish to attend Anglican worship services,” (About Us.” 2018). This church is not meant for only South Koreans, but also any members of the Anglican Faith.  As one of the oldest protestant churches in South Korea, the Seoul Anglican Church represents the protestant presence in the region.

Discussion and Conclusion

Throughout the history of South Korea, religion has had a secure place within the country. As evidenced in the variety of coexisting religions, the freedom to practice religion has allowed people to follow whichever faith they want to. This idea is expressed in the physical landscape as well, with there being shrines, temples, churches, and other religions structures representing the numerous religions practiced in South Korea. Today, while some do not identify with a religion, they still take part in practices and rituals associated with the religions practiced in South Korea, such as praying at temples for good luck, or even to celebrate.

As evident in the diversity of religions practiced, as well as the sacred sites located in South Korea that represent each of the practiced religions, religion in all of the forms it takes in South Korea is well represented. From the Korean Shamanistic traditions, to the Buddhist temples, or even the Christian churches and shrines, there are many varied sacred spaces within the Korean Peninsula. To close and reiterate, religion in South Korea is multifaceted as well as quite interdenominational, and is expressed in the variety of religions represented in the sacred sites found within the country.

Works Cited

“Bulguksa Temple [UNESCO World Heritage] (불국사) | Official Korea Tourism Organization.” Imagine Your Korea. Accessed April 05, 2018.           http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/ATR/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?cid=264261.

“Christianity in Korea.” Christianity in Korea – New World Encyclopedia. February 18, 2017.  Accessed April 05, 2018.   http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Christianity_in_Korea.

Connor, Phillip. “6 Facts about South Korea’s Growing Christian Population.” Pew Research Center. August 12, 2014. Accessed April 05, 2018. http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-   tank/2014/08/12/6-facts-about-christianity-in-south-korea/

Eliade, Mircea. Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004.

Garrigues, Stephen. “Korean Shamanism.” Korean Shamanism. February 15, 2018. Accessed April 05, 2018. http://shamanism.sgarrigues.net/.

Gray, Martin. “Sanbang-sa Temple, Cheju-Do Island.” Sacred Sites. Accessed April 05, 2018. https://sacredsites.com/asia/korea/cheju_do.html.

“Jeoldusan Martyrs’ Shrine.” The Seoul Guide. Accessed April 05, 2018.  http://www.theseoulguide.com/sights/shrines/jeoldusan-martyrs-shrine/.

KOSIS KOrean Statistical Information Service. Accessed April 05, 2018. http://kosis.kr/eng/.

“Korean Buddhism.” Korean Buddhism – New World Encyclopedia. September 6, 2015. Accessed April 05, 2018. http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Korean_Buddhism.

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“Religion in Korea.” Religion in Korea – New World Encyclopedia. February 21, 2017. Accessed April 05, 2018. http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Religion_in_Korea.

Savada, Andrea Matles, and William Shaw. South Korea, a Country Study. Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1992.

“The English Mission of the Seoul Anglican Cathedral: About Us.” The Seoul Anglican Cathedral English Mission. Accessed April 05, 2018.     http://seoulanglican.com/seoul_cathedral_aboutus.html .