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Amy Guptill
Learning Objectives
- Understand assignment parameters
- Understand the rhetorical situation
Writing for whom? Writing for what?
The first principle of good communication is knowing your audience. This is where writing papers for class gets kind of weird. As Peter Elbow explains:
When you write for a teacher you are usually swimming against the stream of natural communication. The natural direction of communication is to explain what you understand to someone who doesnât understand it. But in writing an essay for a teacher your task is usually to explain what you are still engaged in trying to understand to someone who understands it better.
Often when you write for an audience of one, you write a letter or email. But college papers arenât written like letters; theyâre written like articles for a hypothetical group of readers that you donât actually know much about. Thereâs a fundamental mismatch between the real-life audience and the form your writing takes. Itâs kind of bizarre, really.
It helps to remember the key tenet of the university model: youâre a junior scholar joining the academic community. Academic papers, in which scholars report the results of their research and thinking to one another, are the lifeblood of the scholarly world, carrying useful ideas and information to all parts of the academic corpus. Unless there is a particular audience specified in the assignment, you would do well to imagine yourself writing for a group of peers who have some introductory knowledge of the field but are unfamiliar with the specific topic youâre discussing. Imagine them being interested in your topic but also busy; try to write something that is well worth your readersâ time. Keeping an audience like this in mind will help you distinguish common knowledge in the field from that which must be defined and explained in your paper. Understanding your audience like this also resolve the audience mismatch that Elbow describes. As he notes, âYou donât write to teachers, you write for them.â
Student Advice
Donât be scared whenever you are given an assignment. Professors know what it was like to be in college and write all kinds of papers. They arenât trying to make your lives difficult, but it is their jobs to make us think and ponder about many things. Take your time and enjoy the paper. Make sure you answer the question being asked rather than rant on about something that is irrelevant to the prompt. — TimothĂ©e Pizarro
Another basic tenet of good communication is clarifying the purpose of the communication and letting that purpose shape your decisions. Your professor wants to see you work through complex ideas and deepen your knowledge through the process of producing the paper. Each assignmentâbe it an argumentative paper, reaction paper, reflective paper, lab report, discussion question, blog post, essay exam, project proposal, or what have youâis ultimately about your learning. To succeed with writing assignments (and benefit from them) you first have to understand their learning-related purposes. As you write for the hypothetical audience of peer junior scholars, youâre demonstrating to your professor how far youâve gotten in analyzing your topic.
Professors donât assign writing lightly. Grading student writing is generally the hardest, most intensive work instructors do. With every assignment they give you, professors assign themselves many, many hours of demanding and tedious work that has to be completed while they are also preparing for each class meeting, advancing their scholarly and creative work, advising students, and serving on committees. Often, theyâre grading your papers on evenings and weekends because the conventional work day is already saturated with other obligations. You would do well to approach every assignment by putting yourself in the shoes of your instructor and asking yourself, âWhy did she give me this assignment? How does it fit into the learning goals of the course? Why is this question/topic/problem so important to my professor that he is willing to spend evenings and weekends reading and commenting on several dozen novice papers on it?â
Most instructors do a lot to make their pedagogical (teaching) goals and expectations transparent to students: they explain the course learning goals associated with assignments, provide grading rubrics in advance, and describe several strategies for succeeding. Other professors ⊠not so much. Some students perceive more open-ended assignments as evidence of a lazy, uncaring, or even incompetent instructor. Not so fast! Professors certainly vary in the quantity and specificity of the guidelines and suggestions they distribute with each writing assignment. Some professors make a point to give very few parameters about an assignmentâperhaps just a topic and a length requirementâand they likely have some good reasons for doing so. Here are some possible reasons:
They figured it out themselves when they were students. Unsurprisingly, your instructors were generally successful students who relished the culture and traditions of higher education so much that they strove to build an academic career. The current emphasis on student-centered instruction is relatively recent; your instructors much more often had professors who adhered to the classic model of college instruction: they gave lectures together with, perhaps, one or two exams or papers. Students were on their own to learn the lingo and conventions of each field, to identify the key concepts and ideas within readings and lectures, and to sleuth out instructorsâ expectations for written work. Learning goals, rubrics, quizzes, and preparatory assignments were generally rare.
They think figuring it out yourself is good for you. Because your professors by and large succeeded in a much less supportive environment, they appreciate how learning to thrive in those conditions gave them life-long problem-solving skills. Many think you should be able to figure it out yourself and that it would be good practice for you to do so. Even those who do include a lot of guidance with writing assignments sometimes worry that theyâre depriving you of an important personal and intellectual challenge. Figuring out unspoken expectations is a valuable skill in itself.
Theyâre egg-heads. Many of your instructors have been so immersed in their fields that they may struggle to remember what it was like to encounter a wholly new discipline for the first time. The assumptions, practices, and culture of their disciplines are like the air they breathe; so much so that it is hard to describe to novices. They may assume that a verb like âanalyzeâ is self-evident, forgetting that it can mean very different things in different fields. As a student, you voluntarily came to study with the scholars, artists, and writers at your institution. Rightly or wrongly, the burden is ultimately on you to meet them where they are.
Professors value academic freedom; that is, they firmly believe that their high-level expertise in their fields grants them the privilege of deciding what is important to focus on and how to approach it. College professors differ in this way from high school teachers who are usually obligated to address a defined curriculum. Professors are often extremely wary of anything that seems to threaten academic freedom. Some see specified learning goals and standardized rubrics as the first step in a process that would strip higher education of its independence, scholarly innovation, and sense of discovery. While a standardized set of expectations and practices might make it easier to earn a degree, itâs also good to consider the benefits of the more flexible and diversified model.
It is understandably frustrating when you feel you donât know how to direct your efforts to succeed with an assignment. However, except for rare egregious situations, you would do well to assume the best of your instructor and to appreciate the diversity of learning opportunities you have access to in college. Like one first-year student told Keith Hjortshoj, âI think that every course, every assignment, is a different little puzzle I have to solve. What do I need to do here? When do I need to do it, and how long will it take? What does this teacher expect of me?â The transparency that you get from some professorsâalong with guides like this oneâwill be a big help to you in situations where you have to be scrappier and more pro-active, piecing together the clues you get from your professors, the readings, and other course documents.
The prompt: what does âanalyzeâ mean anyway?
Often, the handout or other written text explaining the assignmentâwhat professors call the assignment promptâwill explain the purpose of the assignment, the required parameters (length, number and type of sources, referencing style, etc.), and the criteria for evaluation. Sometimes, thoughâespecially when you are new to a fieldâyou will encounter the baffling situation in which you comprehend every single sentence in the prompt but still have absolutely no idea how to approach the assignment. No one is doing anything wrong in a situation like that. It just means that further discussion of the assignment is in order. Here are some tips:
Focus on the verbs. Look for verbs like âcompare,â âexplain,â âjustify,â âreflectâ or the all-purpose âanalyze.â Youâre not just producing a paper as an artifact; youâre conveying, in written communication, some intellectual work you have done. So the question is, what kind of thinking are you supposed to do to deepen your learning?
Put the assignment in context. Many professors think in terms of assignment sequences. For example, a social science professor may ask you to write about a controversial issue three times: first, arguing for one side of the debate; second, arguing for another; and finally, from a more comprehensive and nuanced perspective, incorporating text produced in the first two assignments. A sequence like that is designed to help you think through a complex issue. Another common one is a scaffolded research paper sequence: you first propose a topic, then prepare an annotated bibliography, then a first draft, then a final draft, and, perhaps, a reflective paper. The preparatory assignments help ensure that youâre on the right track, beginning the research process long before the final due date, and taking the time to consider recasting your thesis, finding additional sources, or reorganizing your discussion.5If the assignment isnât part of a sequence, think about where it falls in the semester, and how it relates to readings and other assignments. Are there headings on the syllabus that indicate larger units of material? For example, if you see that a paper comes at the end of a three-week unit on the role of the Internet in organizational behavior, then your professor likely wants you to synthesize that material in your own way. You should also check your notes and online course resources for any other guidelines about the workflow. Maybe you got a rubric a couple weeks ago and forgot about it. Maybe your instructor posted a link about âhow to make an annotated bibliographyâ but then forgot to mention it in class.
Try a free-write. When I hand out an assignment, I often ask students to do a five-minute or ten-minute free-write. A free-write is when you just write, without stopping, for a set period of time. That doesnât sound very âfree;â it actually sounds kind of coerced. The âfreeâ part is what you writeâit can be whatever comes to mind. Professional writers use free-writing to get started on a challenging (or distasteful) writing task or to overcome writers block or a powerful urge to procrastinate. The idea is that if you just make yourself write, you canât help but produce some kind of useful nugget. Thus, even if the first eight sentences of your free write are all variations on âI donât understand thisâ or âIâd really rather be doing something else,â eventually youâll write something like âI guess the main point of this is âŠâ andâbooyah!âyouâre off and running. As an instructor, Iâve found that asking students to do a brief free-write right after I hand out an assignment generates useful clarification questions. If your instructor doesnât make time for that in class, a quick free-write on your own will quickly reveal whether you need clarification about the assignment and, often, what questions to ask.
Ask for clarification the right way. Even the most skillfully crafted assignments may need some verbal clarification, especially because studentsâ familiarity with the field can vary enormously. Asking for clarification is a good thing. Be aware, though, that instructors get frustrated when they perceive that students want to skip doing their own thinking and instead receive an exact recipe for an A paper. Go ahead and ask for clarification, but try to convey that you want to learn and youâre ready to work.In general, avoid starting a question with âDo we have to âŠâ because I can guarantee that your instructor is thinking, âYou donât have to do crap. Youâre an adult. You chose college. You chose this class. Youâre free to exercise your right to fail.â Similarly, avoid asking the professor about what he or she âwants.â Youâre not performing some service for the professor when you write a paper. What they âwantâ is for you to really think about the material.
Potentially Annoying Questions |
Preferable Alternatives |
I donât get it. Can you explain this more? or What do you want us to do? |
I see that we are comparing and contrasting these two cases. What should be our focus? Their causes? Their impacts? Their implications? All of those things? or Iâm unfamiliar with how art historians analyze a painting. Could you say more about what questions I should have in mind to do this kind of analysis? |
How many sources do we have to cite? |
Is there a typical range for the number of sources a well written paper would cite for this assignment? or Could you say more about what the sources are for? Is it more that weâre analyzing these texts in this paper, or are we using these texts to analyze some other case? |
What do I have to do to get an A on this paper? |
Could I meet with you to get feedback on my (pre-prepared) plans/outline/thesis/draft? or Iâm not sure how to approach this assignment. Are there any good examples or resources you could point me to? |
Rubrics as road maps
If a professor provides a grading rubric with an assignment prompt, thank your lucky stars (and your professor). If the professor took the trouble to prepare and distribute it, you can be sure that he or she will use it to grade your paper. He or she may not go over it in class, but itâs the clearest possible statement of what the professor is looking for in the paper. If itâs wordy, it may seem like those online âterms and conditionsâ that we routinely accept without reading. But you really should read it over carefully before you begin and again as your work progresses. A lot of rubrics do have some useful specifics. Mine, for example, often contain phrases like âmakes at least six error-free connections to concepts or ideas from the course,â or âgives thorough consideration to at least one plausible counter-argument.â Even less specific criteria (such as âincorporates course conceptsâ and âconsiders counter-argumentsâ) will tell you how you should be spending your writing time.
Even the best rubrics arenât completely transparent. They simply canât be. Even well-written, nationally admired rubrics may still seem kind of vague. Take, for example, the Association of American Universities and Colleges critical thinking rubric as an example, what is the real difference between âdemonstrating a thorough understanding of context, audience, and purposeâ and âdemonstrating adequate considerationâ of the same? It depends on the specific context. So how can you know whether youâve done that? A big part of what youâre learning, through feedback from your professors, is to judge the quality of your writing for yourself. Your future bosses are counting on that. At this point, it is better to think of rubrics as roadmaps, displaying your destination, rather than a GPS system directing every move you make.
Behind any rubric is the essential goal of higher education: helping you take charge of your own learning, which means writing like an independently motivated scholar. Are you tasked with proposing a research paper topic? Donât just tell the professor what you want to do, convince him or her of the salience of your topic, as if you were a scholar seeking grant money. Is it a reflection paper? Then outline both the insights youâve gained and the intriguing questions that remain, as a scholar would. Are you writing a thesis-driven analytical paper? Then apply the concepts youâve learned to a new problem or situation. Write as if your scholarly peers around the country are eagerly awaiting your unique insights. Descriptors like âthoroughnessâ or âmasteryâ or âdetailed attentionâ convey the vision of student writers making the time and rigorous mental effort to offer something new to the ongoing, multi-stranded academic conversation. What your professor wants, in short, is critical thinking.
Whatâs critical about critical thinking?
Critical thinking is one of those terms that has been used so often and in so many different ways that if often seems meaningless. It also makes one wonder, is there such a thing as uncritical thinking? If you arenât thinking critically, then are you even thinking?
Despite the prevalent ambiguities, critical thinking actually does mean something. The Association of American Colleges and Universities usefully defines it as âa habit of mind characterized by the comprehensive exploration of issues, ideas, artifacts, and events before accepting or formulating an opinion or conclusion.â
That definition aligns with the best description of critical thinking I ever heard; it came from my junior high art teacher, Joe Bolger. He once asked us, âWhat color is the ceiling?â In that withering tween tone, we reluctantly replied, âWhiiiite.â He then asked, âWhat color is it really?â We deigned to aim our pre-adolescent eyes upwards, and eventually began to offer more accurate answers: âIvory?â âYellow-ish tan.â âItâs grey in that corner.â
After finally getting a few thoughtful responses, Mr. Bolger said something like, âMaking good art is about drawing what you see, not what you think youâre supposed to see.â The AAC&U definition, above, essentially amounts to the same thing: taking a good look and deciding what you really think rather than relying on the first idea or assumption that comes to mind.
The critical thinking rubric produced by the AAC&U describes the relevant activities of critical thinking in more detail. To think critically, one must âŠ
(a) âclearly state and comprehensively describe the issue or problemâ
(b) âindependently interpret and evaluate sourcesâ
(c) âthoroughly analyze assumptions behind and context of your own or othersâ ideasâ
(d) âargue a complex position and one that takes counter-arguments into accountâ
(e) âarrive at logical and well informed conclusionsâ
While you are probably used to providing some evidence for your claims, you can see that college-level expectations go quite a bit further. When professors assign an analytical paper, they donât just want you to formulate a plausible-sounding argument. They want you to dig into the evidence, think hard about unspoken assumptions and the influence of context, and then explain what you really think and why.
Interestingly, the AAC&U defines critical thinking as a âhabit of mindâ rather than a discrete achievement. And there are at least two reasons to see critical thinking as a craft or art to pursue rather than a task to check off. First, the more you think critically, the better you get at it. As you get more and more practice in closely examining claims, their underlying logic, and alternative perspectives on the issue, itâll begin to feel automatic. Youâll no longer make or accept claims that begin with âEveryone knows that âŠâ or end with âThatâs just human nature.â Second, just as artists and craftspersons hone their skills over a lifetime, learners continually expand their critical thinking capacities, both through the feedback they get from others and their own reflections. Artists of all kinds find satisfaction in continually seeking greater challenges. Continual reflection and improvement is part of the craft.
Critical thinking is hard work. Even those who actively choose to do it experience it as tedious, difficult, and sometimes surprisingly emotional. Nobel-prize winning psychologist Daniel Kahneman explains that our brains arenât designed to think; rather, theyâre designed to save us from having to think. Our brains are great at developing routines and repertoires that enable us to accomplish fairly complex tasks like driving cars, choosing groceries, and having a conversation without thinking consciously and thoroughly about every move we make. Kahneman calls this âfast thinking.â âSlow thinking,â which is deliberate and painstaking, is something our brains seek to avoid. That built-in tendency can lead us astray. Kahneman and his colleagues often used problems like this one in experiments to gauge how people used fast and slow thinking in different contexts:
- A bat and ball cost $1.10.
- The bat costs one dollar more than the ball.
- How much does the ball cost?
Most people automatically say the ball costs $0.10. However, if the bat costs $1 more, than the bat would cost $1.10 leading to the incorrect total of $1.20. The ball costs $0.05. Kahneman notes, âMany thousands of university students have answered the bat-and-ball puzzle, and the results are shocking. More than 50% of students at Harvard, MIT, and Princeton gave the intuitiveâincorrectâanswer.â These and other results confirm that âmany people are overconfident, prone to place too much faith in their intuitions.â Thinking criticallyâthoroughly questioning your immediate intuitive responsesâis difficult work, but every organization and business in the world needs people who can do that effectively. Some students assume that an unpleasant critical thinking experience means that theyâre either doing something wrong or that itâs an inherently uninteresting (and oppressive) activity. While we all relish those times when weâre pleasantly absorbed in a complex activity (what psychologist Mihaly Czikszentmihalyi calls âflowâ), the more tedious experiences can also bring satisfaction, sort of like a good work-out.
Critical thinking can also be emotionally challenging, researchers have found. Facing a new realm of uncertainty and contradiction without relying on familiar assumptions is inherently anxiety-provoking because when youâre doing it, you are, by definition, incompetent. Recent research has highlighted that both children and adults need to be able to regulate their own emotions in order to cope with the challenges of building competence in a new area. The kind of critical thinking your professors are looking forâthat is, pursuing a comprehensive, multi-faceted exploration in order to arrive at an arguable, nuanced argumentâis inevitably a struggle and it may be an emotional one. Your best bet is to find ways to make those processes as efficient, pleasant, and effective as you can.
The demands students face are not just from school. Professional working roles demand critical thinking, as 81% of major employers reported in an AAC&U-commissioned survey, and itâs pretty easy to imagine how critical thinking helps one make much better decisions in all aspects of life. Embrace it. And just as athletes, artists, and writers sustain their energy and inspiration for hard work by interacting with others who share these passions, look to others in the scholarly communityâ your professors and fellow studentsâto keep yourself engaged in these ongoing intellectual challenges. While writing time is often solitary, itâs meant to plug you into a vibrant academic community. What your professors want, overall, is for you to join them in asking and pursuing important questions about the natural, social, and creative worlds.