4 Chapter 4: Islam

Introduction

The Origins of Islam

Muslims consider Muhammad (570 C.E to 632 C.E) the final messenger in a series of prophets sent by God to humanity.  In addition to Abraham, these prophets include many other figures important in the Jewish and Christian traditions, such as Noah, Moses, and Jesus.  In Muslim belief, all prophets are solely human—not divine.  However, the importance of Muhammad to Muslims should not be underestimated.  He was the religious and political leader of the early Muslim community, and even today—fourteen centuries after his death—his life is considered an example for all Muslims to follow.  Muslims consider Muhammad to be the ideal human.  And although he was a prophet, in many respects he lived an ordinary life.  He had a family, earned a living, and was active in his community.

Muhammad was born around 570 CE in Mecca. Muhammad’s father died before Muhammad’s birth; his mother died when Muhammad was six years old. Muhammad’s uncle, Abu Talib, raised him. His life as an orphan was difficult, and he was never given the opportunity to receive an education. It is thought that Muhammad was illiterate.

After the first revelations, Muhammad began a life of preaching in Mecca.  The verses of the Qur’an that he received during this time emphasized the oneness of God—the central tenet of the Islamic faith.  Muhammad preached this idea to the people of Mecca, and also taught about morality, social justice for the poor and downtrodden, and the inevitability of the Day of Judgment.

His preaching was not welcomed by the powerful elite of Mecca both because he rejected existing henotheistic beliefs and because he severely criticized many wealthy Meccans because of their mistreatment and neglect of the poor.  Because of the turmoil in Mecca, Muhammad and his small band of followers were ultimately forced in 622 CE to flee to Medina, a small city in the rocky hills north of Mecca.

In 630 CE, Muhammad and his Muslim followers returned to Mecca.  Muhammad was accepted as the true prophet and the revelation of the Oneness of God was accepted by the leaders of the Arabic tribes.  When Muhammad died two years later, the Muslim faith had already been accepted by the majority of peoples living in Saudi Arabia.

The Historical Development of Islam

When Muhammad died, he did not have a son and did not designate a successor to lead the Islamic people; the result was confusion about who should replace him.  The controversy over who should guide the Muslim community led to the development of the two major branches of Islam: the Sunni and Shi’a.  The majority group, known as the Sunni, chose the highly respect Abu-Bakr to lead the community.  The minority group believed that Muhammad’s cousin, Ali, should replace him.  Those who did not accept the authority of Bakr formed a distinct community—the Shi’a.  The Shi’a believed that Muhammad had chosen Ali to succeed him and that the members of Muhammad’s family had an intrinsic quality that made them the only appropriate leaders of the umma.

The leaders who came after Muhammad were not viewed as prophets.  They were known rather as caliphs, who ruled as representatives of God and the prophet and had both religious and political authority.  Several dynasties of caliphs came to power over the following centuries.  Prominent among these were the Umayyads (661 CE to 750 CE) and the Abbasids (750 CE to 1258 CE). The time of the Abbasids is known as the golden era of Islam. Under their leadership, learning and scholarship flourished, and Islamic countries enjoyed unprecedented wealth. As the Abbasid Dynasty diminished in power, the Mamelukan Turks filled the vacuum and ruled from their headquarters in Egypt.

The last Islamic dynasty was the Ottoman Turks, who ruled from the 16th century CE until the end of World War I. Through military conquest, the Ottomans spread Islam into Europe, including especially a stronghold in Spain. The Ottomans conquered Constantinople in 1453 CE and changed the name to Istanbul. The Ottomans held vast areas of land across the Middle East and Africa before allied forces defeated them in World War I.

The dynasties mentioned above were the most prominent Muslim dynasties but not the only ones. Other Islamic dynasties include the Fatimid Dynasty (909 CE to 1171 CE), which ruled from Egypt, and the Seljuq Dynasty (1037 CE to 1307 C.E), which ruled from Turkey and Persia and extended into parts of central Asia.

What Muslims Believe (Solutions to the Problem of Pride)

Islam has five central theological tenets. Like the other Abrahamic religions (Judaism and Christianity), Islam is a monotheistic religion, and the most important principle of Muslim faith is the absolute oneness, or unity, of God. The second is the existence of angels. God created angels to serve his purposes. The third tenet is the belief that God has sent prophets to bring his message to humanity. Muslims believe in a long line of prophets—beginning with Adam and culminating in Muhammad—who reveal the word of God to people. The fourth theological tenet is a belief in the scriptures. Muslims believe that the Qur’an contains the exact words of God as spoken in Arabic to Muhammad. Every word is believed to be true. The fifth tenet is belief in a final judgment during which God will judge everyone based on their submission to the will of God.

The Qur’an teaches that God (known in Arabic as Allah) is eternal, uncreated, all-knowing, all-powerful, just, and good.  The Qur’an above all stresses that God is merciful.  God is transcendent but also present, or immanent, in the lives of believers.  A much-quoted verse of the Qur’an refers to God as closer to humanity “than the jugular vein.”  Muslims worship the same God as Christians and Jews, but like Jews, believe that the Christian doctrine of the Trinity comprises the unity of God.  For the pious Muslim, the worship of God should be given to God alone, and human beings should worship nothing else.  Therefore, nature, idols, images, and human beings must not be worshipped.

Prophecy is also an essential component of Muslim belief.  As in Judaism and Christianity, Muslims believe that humanity comes to know God through the messages revealed to prophets.  Muslims recognize many prophets who received special words from God that were appropriate for humanity at the time in which the prophet lived.  Jesus is mentioned in the Qur’an as an especially important prophet and Muslims accept the Gospels as part of God’s revelation to humanity.  Muslims believe that Jesus was born of the virgin Mary, who is held in very high regard by Muslims (especially women).

Muhammad was the final prophet chosen by God to reveal his will to humanity, according to Muslims, and he is frequently given the honorific title, “The Prophet.”  Muslims repeat daily the sentence “There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is his prophet” (or some variation of these words). Many Muslims believe that the recitation of this monotheistic creed is what makes one a Muslim. They believe it is the keystone of Islam.

The essence of the Qur’anic message about the deity is absolute monotheism. This absolute monotheism is known as Tawhid, or the “oneness of God.”

What Muslims Practice (Solutions to the Problem of Pride)

What does it mean to be a practicing Muslim?  The best way to answer this question is to discuss the Five Pillars of Islam. The five pillars form the structure through which Muslims express their faith and obey Allah. The five pillars are specific actions which, when carried out, bring righteousness.  Devout Muslims generally aim to observe all of the pillars, but as with every religious tradition, there are variations in levels of observance.

The first of the five pillars is shahadah, or creed. Shahadah is the most basic religious observance of Muslims: the recitation of the basic creedal statement “La Ilaha illa Allah; Muhammad Rasul Allah,” which means “There is no God but Allah; Muhammad is the Prophet of Allah.” This creed is recited as many times as possible throughout the day. It is believed that reciting it makes one a Muslim.

The second pillar is salat, or daily prayer. Muslims are required to pray five times each day, facing Mecca if possible. Muslims pray at dawn, noon, midafternoon, dusk, and when it becomes dark. Most mosques have a tower built beside them called a minaret. At each of these prayer times, it is customary to issue a call to prayer, or adhan, from the minaret. A muezzin, a Muslim man with a strong, clear voice, issues the call to prayer. When the call to prayer is sung, Muslims usually stop their activities and pray. Devout Muslims also observe salah in places where there is no audible call to prayer.

The salat are not individualized prayers requesting aid from God or giving thanks.  These personal prayers (known as dua are common among Muslims who try to practice ceaseless prayer throughout the day).  Rather, the salat are formalized prayers that every Muslim around the world says.  In this way, the practice of daily prayer emphasizes the unity which Muslims have with each other through their faith in the oneness and unity of God.

The fourth pillar is sawm or fasting. Muslims fast during the month of Ramadan. Because the Muslim calendar is a lunar one, Ramadan does not coincide with the traditional Western calendar. The dates of Ramadan, therefore, vary from one year to the next. During Ramadan, Muslims fast from food, water, tobacco, and sexual relations during daylight hours. An extremely specific test is used to determine daylight hours: when it is light enough in the morning to distinguish a black string from a white one, the fast begins. In the evening, when it is too dark to tell the strings apart, the fast end. The chronically ill, sick, children under adolescent age, pregnant and nursing women, and the elderly are exempt from sawm if fasting would endanger their health.

The final pillar is the Hajj, a pilgrimage to Mecca. All Muslims are required to make this journey at least once in their lives if they can afford to do so. In Mecca, Muslim pilgrims worship at the Ka’ba and make animal sacrifices. Before modern travel, it was common for poor Muslims to use their life’s savings for a Hajj and then die on the way to Mecca or on the way home. It was considered a holy death. When pilgrims reach Mecca, they must abandon whatever form of travel they used to get there and enter the city on foot. They must wear sandals and a basic robe so that there is no visible difference between rich and poor. The title of haji is attached to the name of any Muslim who has made the pilgrimage to Mecca to demonstrate that the person has fulfilled this Islamic obligation.

The Five Pillars of Islam provide a foundational framework for a Muslim’s spiritual life, but they are not exhaustive. Muslims also rely on other sources of guidance, such as:

1. The Quran: The holy book of Islam is considered the literal word of God as revealed to Prophet Muhammad.
2. Hadith: The sayings, actions, and approvals of Prophet Muhammad serve as a guide for understanding the Quran and living a virtuous life.
3. Sunnah: The example and teachings of Prophet Muhammad provide a model for moral conduct.
4. Ijtihad: Independent reasoning and interpretation of Islamic law and ethics by qualified scholars give guidance to people facing moral decisions.
5. Shariah: Islamic law encompasses a broad range of moral and ethical principles.

While it is true that Muslims believe in finding and obeying the will of Allah, it’s important to note that Islamic ethics and morality are rooted in a rich and complex tradition of scholarship, jurisprudence, and spiritual guidance. Muslims do not simply rely on individual interpretation or personal opinion to determine right and wrong.

It is important to underscore the fact that Muslims believe Allah’s wisdom and mercy are infinite, and that His guidance can manifest in various ways, depending on individual circumstances and contexts. However, this does not imply moral relativism or a lack of clear moral principles. Rather, it reflects the complexity and diversity of human experiences, and the need for compassionate and thoughtful application of Islamic ethics and law.

Sacred Texts in Islam

The sacred text of Islam is the Qur’an, (sometimes spelled as Koran in English).  The Qur’an, which means “recitation,” is a rendering of the words of the prophet Muhammad. After Muhammad’s death, his followers gathered his sayings into collections, which later were combined into a single volume. The Qur’an consists of 114 chapters, or surahs. These surahs have varying numbers of verses, or ayas. The surahs are not arranged chronologically or by subject; rather, they are arranged by length. The longest surahs are first, followed by subsequently shorter and shorter surahs. The first surah contains 287 ayas, while the last surah has only 3 ayas. The entire Qur’an is a little shorter than the New Testament, with about 6,000 verses in all.

Traditionally, the Qur’an is read at the birth of a Muslim child and its words often are the first words the child hears. The Qur’an usually is read at the time of death as well, if possible. One of the most honorable acts a Muslim can undertake is to memorize and recite the entire Qur’an. Anyone who does this is awarded the title of hafiz to demonstrate his or her devotion.

After the Qur’an, the second most important source of Islamic teachings is in the Sunnah.  The Sunnah encompasses Muhammad’s actions and words.  It includes the way he handled disputes in the early community, the way he dealt with his family, and the way he went about the daily business of life.  Since Muhammad is considered to be the “ideal human,” Muslims believe that he is the model of the best way to live.

The stories of Muhammad are recounted in a collection of writings known as the Hadith.  The stories and sayings contained within the hadith come from observations of Muhammad’s family and friends.  His companions realized his importance as an example of righteous behavior and thus strove to remember his actions and words.  The hadith are compiled into collections of several thousands.

Many of the hadith focus on God’s love for humanity, God’s mercy, and the closeness of God to creation.  The following hadith illustrates the quality of God’s mercy:

God says: “If my servant intends a good deed and does not do it I write it down for him as a good deed.  Then if he does it, I write it down for him as ten good deeds, or up to several hundred times that.  And if my servant intends an evil deed and does not do it, I do not write it down against him.  And if he does it, I write it down for him as only one evil deed.”

Sacred People in Islam

Islam recognizes several categories of sacred people. The most sacred person in Islam is Muhammad, the last and most authoritative prophet of Allah. Muslims believe that Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and many others were prophets but that their revelation was incomplete. With the prophecy of Muhammad in the Qur’an, Allah’s self-disclosure has come to an end. Muhammad is seen as the last and greatest prophet. The greatest prophets, such as Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad, are recognized as a special class of prophets called messengers.

In local Islamic communities, an imam typically serves as the spiritual leader. Unlike priests in Catholicism or Judaism, imams are not intermediaries between God and worshippers. Instead, they are respected religious scholars who have demonstrated a deep understanding of Islam, the Quran, and the ability to teach and guide others. Imams are chosen for their piety, knowledge, and leadership skills, and they play a vital role in the community. While most imams are male, women can also serve in this position.

The imam’s responsibilities include leading prayers, representing the Muslim community in the wider society, teaching the Quran, and offering guidance and counsel to Muslims on important life decisions. However, the role and authority of the imam are interpreted differently by Shia and Sunni Muslims, with ongoing debates and discussions within the Islamic community.

Some Muslims, especially those who practice Sufism, revere wali, or saintly men and women. These saints are not viewed in the same light as saints in Roman Catholicism (i.e., holy people with the ability to serve as mediators between God and humanity). Rather, they are examples and role models to follow on the road to becoming more obedient to Allah. Examples include Hasan of Basra and Ebrahim Ibn Adham.

Sacred Space in Islam

Muslims recognize three types of sacred places: shrines, mosques, and cities. Shrines are places of remembrance, typically built in honor of a Muslim leader or scholar. For example, the shrine of Abu Talib is in Najaf, Iraq; a shrine in honor of Musa al-Ridha stands in Mashad, Iran. The three most important shrines in Islam are the Ka’ba in Mecca; the Mosque of the Prophet Muhammad in Medina, Saudi Arabia, where Muhammad is buried; and the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem.

Mosques are sacred because they are the dedicated houses of worship. Muslims follow special regulations for ritual bathing and worship within most mosques—regulations that mirror social and tribal regulations of Muhammad’s time. For example, shoes are removed, and the soles of the shoes may not touch the carpets, which are used for prayer. Mosques usually are large, open spaces without benches or seating. Muslims kneel or stand during worship and prayer. A lectern, from which an imam or cleric preaches a sermon or teaches a lesson on the Qur’an and lead prayers, is located at one end of the mosque. Some mosques are holier than others. For example, Muhammad Ali, a prominent Muslim leader (not the American boxer) is buried at a mosque in Cairo known as the citadel, or Alabaster Mosque. This mosque is among the holiest in Egypt. In addition, the Al Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock are the holiest Islamic sites in Jerusalem.

Islam’s holiest cities are connected to Muhammad. Mecca, in present-day Saudi Arabia, is Islam’s holiest city for two reasons: it is the birthplace of Muhammad and the home of the Ka’ba. Mecca is the home of the Ka’ba, a shrine that dates back to the time of Abraham, according to Islamic tradition. Medina, also in Saudi Arabia, is holy to Muslims because Muhammad lived   and taught there for quite some time. Jerusalem also is considered holy in Islam because several of the prophets before Muhammad’s time—particularly Jesus Christ—are connected tohe city. Because Jerusalem was situated on a major trade route, it was exposed to Islam from the earliest days of the religion.

The single most sacred space in Islam is the Ka’ba, a mosque in Mecca. It is said that the first building on the site of the Ka’ba was built by Abraham himself. The Ka’ba is older than Islam. In Muhammad’s day, it was used as a shrine to various deities that the henotheistic people in the area worshiped. Muhammad removed the relics relating to other gods and dedicated the Ka’ba to the worship of the one true God. When Muslims pray facing Mecca, they actually face the Ka’ba.

Sacred Time in Islam

Islam observes two basic units of sacred time: a holy day each week and a holy month each year. The holy day each week is Friday. Unlike the holy days of Christianity (Sunday) and Judaism (Saturday), Friday is not a day of rest in Islam. Rather, it is the only day in which Muslims are required to gather at a mosque for communal worship and prayer with other Muslims. The khutbah, or Friday sermon, is delivered at these worship services.

The daily practice of Islam involves praying five times a day and the recitation of the Islamic creed. These practices can be performed privately or within the family unit. Mosques are open every day in Muslim communities for Muslims who want to attend prayer; praying daily, however, is not required. Prayer may be practiced at home or at any other place. On Fridays, however, all Muslims are required to attend a local mosque for prayer. The local imam usually preaches a sermon. Because Muslims are required to pray in a clean place, a mat often is used, though it is not necessary.

Several important celebrations and feast days occur throughout the Islamic year and Muslims around the world celebrate these days in a variety of ways.  The Feast of Sacrifice (Id al-Adha) takes place at the end of the hajj season and is the primary holiday of the Muslim year.  The second most important feast is the Feast of Fast-Breaking (Id al-Fitr).  This feast marks the end of Ramadan.

The basic obligation of Islam is worship. Worship is observed daily through the five prayers, weekly through the Friday prayer service, and annually through the practice of fasting during Ramadan.

Death and the Afterlife in Islam

Islam’s views of death and the afterlife are similar to Judaism and to some aspects of Christianity. Muslims believe that each person lives only once and that after this life has ended, God will judge each person.

Muslims believe that judgment does not happen immediately. They believe instead that when a person dies, the body returns to the earth and the soul goes into a state of sleep until the resurrection day. Muslims also believe that God will come to earth and will raise the dead to life again to be judged along with those who are alive.

To help explain the concept of judgment, Muslims use the imagery of a book detailing the deeds of their life.  It is these deeds which will determine their future.  Those who are judged to be righteous will enter Paradise.  Those who have led sinful lives will be cast into hell, which is often referred to simply as “the fire.”  Some Muslims believe that even these sinners will eventually be forgiven and taken to paradise. It is also important to note that Muslims do not believe that only Muslims enter heaven; all people who have lived in submission to God and treated others kindly are given entrance into Paradise.

Islam and Society

In the Middle East, Islamic countries like Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and Iran have societies built around the observance of Islam. For instance, in Cairo, businesses often have prayer rooms with prayer rugs and foot washing stations, and it’s common for everyone to pause and pray together during the day. This level of religious integration is rare in the United States.

Historically, two factors have shaped Islam’s interactions with the West: imperialism and oil. Western nations have sought to exploit the Middle East’s oil resources, leading to economic influence and cultural exchange. However, this has also disrupted traditional Islamic social and religious orders, prompting some Muslims to seek a return to pre-Western values and practices. These individuals are known as Islamic fundamentalists.

Islamic education takes place in madrasahs, which can be secular or religious. Children typically attend primary school from ages 6 to 14, learning the Quran, literature, mathematics, and basic skills. Secondary schools focus on career-specific skills, and religion is often taught in public schools, unlike in Western societies.

Islamic cultures can vary greatly from Western cultures, but some Islamic countries, like Indonesia and Pakistan, have made significant progress in gender equality, with women holding high political offices. Today, nearly 10 million Muslims live in the United States, with a growing population through immigration and conversion. American Muslims are making significant contributions to their communities and in politics, with a presence in cities across the country, from Los Angeles to Dearborn, Michigan.

Notably, many African Americans have converted to Islam in the 20th century, including famous figures like Muhammad Ali and Kareem Abdul-Jabbar. Almost half of the Muslims in the United States are African Americans, drawn to Islam for various reasons, including the fact that many of their ancestors were practicing Muslims when brought to the Americas as slaves.

Glossary

Abbasid Dynasty: The second Islamic dynasty, which ruled from 750 CE to 1258 CE

Absolute monotheism: The belief that only one God exists and that God does not possess any plurality of being.

Adhan: A chant, usually sung from a minaret, that calls Muslims to prayer five times each day.

Allah: In Islam, the Arabic word for God.

Aya: A verse within a surah in the Qur’an.

Fatalism: The belief that future events are fixed and unchangeable, either because of the impersonal force of fate or because of the will of God.

Five Pillars of Islam: The five obligations that form the foundation of Muslim ethics; see also Shahadah, Salah, Zakat, Sawm, and Hajj.

Fundamentalist: A person who wants to return to the fundamental principles of a particular religion.

Hadith collections: Compilations of the words or actions of Muhammad but not those found in the Qur’an.

Haji: An honorary title bestowed on any Muslim who has completed a pilgrimage to Mecca.

Hajj: In Islam, a pilgrimage to Mecca.

Hafiz: An honorary title for any Muslim who has memorized and recited the entire Qur’an.

Henotheism:  Worship of one god among several: the worship of one god while acknowledging the existence of other gods

Imam: In Islam, a man (sometimes a woman) who is recognized for his piety and knowledge of the Qur’an and who is a leader in the local Islamic community.

Imperialism: The influence of one nation over another, usually for economic purposes.

Ka’ba: A shrine in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, and the most important Islamic holy site.

hadija: Muhammad’s first wife and one of the first converts to Islam.

Khutbah: In Islam, the sermon preached on Fridays and on holy days.

Madrasah: An Arabic term meaning “school”; may refer to any educational institution.

Mamelukan Turks: The third Islamic dynasty, which ruled from Egypt from 1258 CE to the early 16th century.

Mecca: The holiest city in Islam; the birthplace of Muhammad, located in present-day Saudi Arabia.

Messenger: In Islam, a title applied to the greatest and most important prophets.

Minaret: A tower, usually attached to a mosque, from which the daily calls to prayer are sung.

Muhammad: The founder of Islam.

Monotheism: The belief in only one God

Mosque: A building dedicated to Muslim worship.

Muezzin: A Muslim man who sings the daily call to prayer.

Muslim: A follower of Islam.

Ottoman Turks: The last great dynasty of Islam, which ruled from the 16th century to 1918 and was based in Turkey.

Qur’an: The holy book of Islam, consisting of the teachings of Muhammad.

Ramadan: The holiest month of the Islamic calendar; the time when Muhammad received his first revelations from the angel Gabriel.

Salah: In Islam, the five daily prayers of a Muslim.

Sawm: In Islam, the practice of fasting during daylight hours during the month of Ramadan.

Shahadah: The Islamic creed; an Islamic confession of faith that there is no God but Allah and that Muhammad is his prophet.

Sharia: The sacred law of Islam that is specified in the Qur’an and in Islamic tradition.

Sufism:  The mystical tradition within Islam

Sufis focus on the believer’s personal experience of God and the goal of union with God in a personal relationship of faith and love

Surah: Any one of 112 chapters in the Qur’an.

Taliban: A strict Islamic group closely connected to terrorism that has held power in several Middle Eastern countries, such as Afghanistan.

Tawhid: The Islamic doctrine of the oneness of Allah.

Terrorism: The attempt to achieve political ends through random acts of violence against civilian targets.

Umayyad Dynasty: The first Muslim dynasty, which ruled from 661 CE to 750 CE and was based in Damascus, Syria.

Umma:  The worldwide Muslim community

Zakat: In Islam, the practice of giving alms.