5 Chapter 5: Confucianism

Introduction

Confucianism is a rich and complex system of thought and behavior that has been a cornerstone of East Asian culture for over 2,500 years. This multifaceted tradition encompasses a wide range of philosophical, ethical, and religious ideals, and has been aptly described as a philosophy, religion, way of governing, and way of life. At its core, Confucianism is rooted in the teachings of the venerable Chinese philosopher Kong Qiu, affectionately known as Confucius (551-479 BCE).

Born in the state of Lu, Confucius was a scholar, teacher, and political advisor who sought to revive the moral and political ideals of the ancient Zhou dynasty. His teachings, which emphasize personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, justice, kindness, sincerity, and a ruler’s responsibilities to lead by virtue, have had a profound and enduring impact on East Asian thought and culture.  Through his teachings, Confucius aimed to create a harmonious society in which individuals could cultivate their moral character and live in balance with others and with nature. His philosophy emphasizes the importance of personal development, self-cultivation, and the cultivation of virtues such as ren (benevolence), yi (righteousness), and li (propriety).

Today, Confucianism continues to influence the values, beliefs, and practices of millions of people around the world, particularly in China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Its teachings remain a powerful force in shaping the moral and ethical fabric of East Asian societies, and its impact can be seen in many aspects of modern life, from education and politics to art and literature.

The Origins of Confucianism

Confucianism originated with Chinese philosopher and statesman Confucius (551 – 479 BCE). Confucius’ name was K’ung, and he became known to his disciples as K’ung Fu-tzu, or “Master K’ung.” Western missionaries later discovered his writings and Latinized his name to Confucius. Born in the present-day Shantung province, Confucius entered the world in an era of chaos and political upheaval. The Zhou Dynasty was the longest standing dynasty in Chinese history; however, by the time of Confucius’ birth, Chinese life had degraded to near anarchy. According to legend, Confucius’ father was a famous warrior of tremendous size and strength. He  was 70 years old when Confucius was conceived but died before the child was born.  While in his late teens, Confucius accepted a low-ranking government position. He became intensely interested in the law and the process of government. As he studied, he began to teach. By his mid-20s, Confucius had made a reputation for himself as a man of learning and had gathered a small following of disciples who lived in his home and studied his views on history and government. Confucius attracted followers with his winsome personality and plain, straightforward political philosophy.

At the age of 50, Confucius was hired as the prime minister of the Lu province, working under the Duke of Lu. According to tradition, Confucius had the chance to put his ideas about government to work, with positive effect. For example, Confucius mandated standards of behavior for each class in society. Social order was found, he said, when each person fulfilled his or her social function. The crime rate fell to almost zero. It was reported that people stopped locking their doors and that if a man lost his wallet or change purse in the street, he would find it untouched the next day. In spite of his success, Confucius’ enemies, jealous of his position and prestige, conspired against him and forced his retirement after only five years. The exact nature of the conspiracy is not clear.

Confucius returned to teaching and was later hired as an advisor to the Duke of Ai. During his later years, Confucius compiled and edited several classical Chinese texts and taught a growing number of disciples. Confucius taught that a well-ordered society is necessary for the betterment of humanity and that in order to find guidelines and norms for ruling a society, one should look to the antiquity of the Chinese past. For Confucius, the way things have been, by and large, is the way things should be.

While Confucianism is primarily a social and political philosophy, it has had such a profound and lasting impact on Chinese culture and society that it is worthy of examination. Additionally, Confucianism is practiced in the world’s most populous country (China) and other Southeast Asian countries, lending itself to longevity in accord with Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism. It would be accurate to say, however, that the philosophy of Confucianism and the religion of Daoism together have had the greatest impact on the intellectual history of China.

The Historical Development of Confucianism

Confucius’ ideas did not gain widespread popularity during his lifetime. He gathered a small number of disciples and had political influence to one degree or another in the Chinese provinces of Lu and Ai. After Confucius’ death, however, his disciples spread his message far beyond what Confucius could have imagined. They compiled Confucius’ sayings into a philosophical treatise called the Analects of Confucius, which was widely published. In turn, this document led to the development of a new generation of Confucians who put Confucius’ teachings into practice. Two of these disciples proved particularly influential: Mencius and Hsun Tzu.

Hsun Tzu (298 to 238 BCE) took a different approach to Confucianism than Mencius. Little is known about Hsun Tzu’s life, other than that he was a magistrate in the city of Lan-Ling. Hsun Tzu (not to be confused with Sun Tzu, author of the Chinese military treatise, The Art of War) made two significant contributions to the Confucian intellectual tradition. First, he taught that rites or rituals were valuable in creating unity in a population and as education tools. Second, Hsun Tzu broke with Confucius and Mencius and taught that human nature is intrinsically evil. Hsun Tzu taught that because human nature is basically bad, bringing about goodness requires training and social pressure. This departure from the optimistic view of human nature presented by Confucius and Mencius is a distinctive feature of Hsun Tzu’s philosophy within the Confucian tradition.

The following chart compares and contrasts the philosophies of Mencius and Hsun Tzu:

What Confucianists Believe (Solutions to the Problem of Chaos)

Confucianism does not have a specific theology of a God or gods. Confucianism is more a political philosophy and a system of ethics than a religion, but Confucianism fits into the larger scene of Chinese society.  From about the third century CE, Chinese religion was an amalgam of the very ancient beliefs of the people, the gods of Daoism, the saints and saviors of Mahayana Buddhism, and Confucianism. The distinctive contribution of Confucius to this phenomenon lay in the ethical teachings associated with his name.

Confucianism allows for religious worship but does not mandate it. A Confucian may be a Buddhist, a Daoist, or an atheist without compromising Confucian principles. Confucianism is a moral system that is compatible with several other religions. Chinese religion brought elements of Daoism, Confucian ethics, and various native religions into one religious system.

Confucianism focuses on a well- ordered society. Under this philosophy, people who practice religion should practice it with propriety and reverence and should give the gods their due respect. People who are not religious should live moral and virtuous lives. Under Confucianism, each area of social life should fit into its proper place. It is not necessary that religion be a part this social order, but where it is present, it should conform to Confucian standards of propriety.

What Confucianists Practice (Solutions to the Problem of Chaos)

Confucius believed in the natural goodness of humanity. Mencius shared this belief as well. Hsun Tzu believed that people were naturally bent toward evil and required training to behave rightly. In spite of Hsun Tzu’s role in popularizing Confucianism for future generations, his view of human nature did not prevail. Confucianism, for the most part, has seen the basic instincts of humanity as good. People are naturally good, according to Confucianism and if they remain within their proper social boundaries, moral behavior will result. This is because Confucius was focused on elucidating the principles on which a harmonious and stable society could be based.

The first ethical principle of Confucianism is li. Li may be translated as “propriety” or  “reciprocity.” Li is “the course of life as it is intended to go.”   Li depends on one’s station in life. A king’s li is to rule wisely; a merchant’s li is to engage in honest, profitable business; a soldier’s li is to fight honorably. The virtue that underlies all of li is courtesy. Confucius envisioned a polite, well-regulated society in which each person knew his or her place in relation to each other and to society as a whole, and in which each person fulfilled his or her social roles. For this reason, li lent itself well to the feudal society in which Confucius lived.

The table below illustrates these relationships:

It bears mention that Confucius’ view of li is overtly patriarchial in that it places a great emphasis on the role of men in society. Women are mentioned only as wives, and their role is submission to their husbands. This perspective is a reflection of the social structure of Confucius’ day and has continued to exert influence on Chinese society.

Outward conformity to li is not enough. Inward motivation must also be present. In Confucianism, this inward motivation is called jen. Jen may be translated as “benevolence” or “compassion.” The Confucian observes li out of a spirit of jen. She engages in propriety because she is benevolent. Without jen, someone who engages in li is simply a conformist obeying rules of society but not in a virtuous way. In Confucianism, jen is the root behind four other virtues: justice, propriety, wisdom and faithfulness. A person who has jen will demonstrate these virtues, but a person who tries to exhibit these virtues without jen is merely putting on a show. The relationship between jen and its virtues  is shown in the illustration to the right.

A passage from the Analects of Confucius summarizes Confucius’ moral philosophy:

Wealth and rank are what every man desires; but if they can only be retained to the detriment of the Way he professes, he must relinquish them. Poverty and obscurity are what every man detests, but if they can only be avoided to the detriment of the Way he professes, he must accept them. The gentleman who ever parts company with Goodness (jen) does not fulfill that name. Never for a moment does a gentleman quit the way of Goodness. He is never so harried but that he cleaves to this: never so tottering but that he cleaves to this.

Sacred Texts in Confucianism

Confucian literature encompasses a vast array of texts that have been categorized into two primary groups: the Five Classics and the Four Books. The Five Classics are a collection of books that may predate Confucius, with unclear authorship and dates of writing. These texts may have existed in various forms before Confucius’ birth and were later compiled and edited. The Five Classics include:

• The Book of Changes (I Ching)
• The Book of History (Shu Ching)
• The Book of Poetry (Shih Ching)
• The Book of Rites (Li Ching)
• The Spring and Autumn Annals (Ch’un Ch’iu)

Confucius may have played a role in compiling and editing some of these texts, but the extent of his involvement is unclear.

The Four Books, on the other hand, are a collection of philosophical treatises that are considered wisdom literature. These texts aim to impart wisdom and ethical values to the reader, rather than being considered sacred or holy. The Four Books include:

• The Analects of Confucius (Lun Yen)
• The Book of Mencius (Meng Tzu)
• The Doctrine of the Mean (Chung Yung)
• The Great Learning (Ta Hsueh)

These texts offer insights into Confucian thought, emphasizing personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, justice, kindness, sincerity, and a ruler’s responsibilities to lead by virtue. They provide guidance on how to cultivate moral character and live in harmony with others and with nature.

Wisdom literature, like the Confucian texts, consists of proverbs, sayings, stories, and treatises from profound authors. Its purpose is to make the reader a wiser and more ethical person, offering practical advice and insights for living a virtuous life.

Sacred People in Confucianism

Because Confucianism is not organized as a tradition religion, there is no priesthood. Confucianism is a philosophy, and its people of significance are scholars. Confucian scholars such as Confucius himself, Mencius, Hsun Tzu and Tsu Ssu (Confucius’ grandson and author of the Doctrine of the Mean, one of the Four Books) are considered among the great thinkers of Confucianism. In China, the practice of venerating ancestors, great rulers and philosophers has long been practiced. Generations of Confucians have venerated these Confucian scholars.

The most basic sacred person in Confucianism is the chun tzu, or gentleman. This is a person (Confucius envisioned a man, but none of the qualities of a gentleman exclude women from pursuing these virtues) who tries to implement li in his or her life out of a spirit of jen. Li is the Confucian ideal of propriety, or living life as it should be lived. Jen is the Confucian belief that benevolence motivates individuals to act with propriety. Chun tzu is the goal of followers of Confucianism. The chun tzu may be compared to a yogi in Hinduism or to a devout practitioner of any religion. The Analects of Confucius specifies nine areas in which a chun tzu takes care to follow the principle of propriety:

Master K’ung (Confucius) said: The gentleman has nine cares. In seeing he is careful to see clearly, in hearing he is careful to hear distinctly, in his looks he is careful to be kindly; in his manner to be respectful, in his words to be loyal, in his work to be diligent. When in doubt he is careful to ask for information; when angry he has a care for the consequences, and when he sees a chance of gain, he thinks carefully whether the pursuit of it would be consonant with the Right.

Sacred Space in Confucianism

Since Confucianism is not a religion per se, it does not have churches, mosques or temples for the worship of a God or gods. Confucianism does, however, have temples for the veneration of Confucius as a wise ancestor. It also provides schools for the moral formation of young people.

The most important Confucian site is Qufu, the birthplace of Confucius in the modern Shandong province. In addition to a temple to Confucius, Qufu contains a cemetery where Confucius and many of his family members and disciples are buried and the Kong family mansion (i.e., the home in which Confucius’ descendants have lived for more than 1,000 years). Confucians may make a pilgrimage to Qufu to venerate Confucius and to see the temple, cemetery and   mansion, but Confucianism does not require such a pilgrimage.

During the Han Dynasty, Confucianism became the official educational system for training young men to enter the civil service. Schools of Confucianism were created throughout China for the moral and philosophical formation of future leaders and administrators. While not sacred spaces in the sense of temples, monasteries, mosques and churches in other religions, these sites were nonetheless quite important for the propagation of Confucianism.

Confucianism was not only a ‘school’ of thought; it was a school in the strict sense. During the Classical period, Confucianism was taught and learned in small teacher-study training groups. These schools taught martial arts (including archery and horsemanship), which were required skills of Chinese rulers, and classical Chinese texts (including the Book of Poetry and the Spring and Autumn Annals). In addition, various rites and rituals were taught, depending on the teacher. Finally, these Confucian academies emphasized the arts, particularly music.

Confucian education eventually split into two schools: the new-text school and the old-text school. The new-text school taught that Confucius was a transcendental being, almost godlike, while the old-text school saw Confucius as a perfect man and a role model to attain perfect behavior. Another school of Confucian thought emerged as well, the neo- Confucian school. Neo-Confucianism blended the political and moral principles of Confucianism with Daoist and Buddhist religious ideas.

Sacred Time in Confucianism

Death and the Afterlife in Confucianism

Confucius and Confucianism have a distinct focus on earthly life and human society, with little emphasis on the afterlife. Unlike many religions, Confucianism doesn’t have a specific doctrine about what happens after death. Instead, it concentrates on guiding individuals on how to live a virtuous life in the present. This moral system is compatible with various religions, including Buddhism and Daoism, which are also prominent in China. Confucianism teaches individuals how to lead a good life on earth, while their chosen religion provides guidance on honoring the divine and understanding the afterlife.

Although Confucius himself didn’t prioritize death and the afterlife, the Confucian tradition that followed him developed elaborate funeral rituals. When a Confucian passes away, mirrors in the home are removed to avoid inviting death, as seeing a casket in a mirror is believed to be unlucky. Religious statues are often covered with red paper to shield the gods from the deceased. The deceased is typically dressed in their finest attire and may be covered with a blue cloth. The funeral service may be conducted in silence or include prayers. Notably, funeral attendees avoid wearing red, as it symbolizes happiness, which is deemed inappropriate for mourning.

Confucianism and Society

Confucianism is a political and moral philosophy that places great emphasis on a well-ordered society. Confucianism teaches that society begins with the family where children learn propriety and submission to authority. Under the Confucian view of the family, the husband is faithful to his wife and the wife submits to her husband. Children honor their parents, and brothers respect one another. Thus, the family is the training ground for a civil society in which each person knows his or her place.

Beyond the family is the state. In Confucius’ day, China was divided into many small feudal kingdoms. Citizens, or subjects, of these kingdoms maintained loyalty to their rulers, and their rulers were expected to practice benevolence and mercy. Within society, each person must fulfill his or her li. When each person functions according to his or her social role, then society as a whole is balanced and harmonious.

Confucianism continued to be the dominant influence in Chinese society until the rise of Communism. The Cultural Revolution of 1966 (also known as the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution) was the final blow to remnants of Confucian philosophy. Communist party leaders attempted to break China’s adherence to tradition, including Confucianism. The entire Chinese society was uprooted; people were relocated to work camps, and traditional Chinese books, including Confucian literature, were destroyed. This lasted until the death of Mao Zedong in 1976.  In recent years, as China has opened itself to the West and to its past, Confucianism has experienced a revival.

Glossary

Analects of Confucius: One of the Four Books; a collection of the sayings of Confucius that were compiled after his death.

Antiquity: The study of a society’s origins.

Book of Mencius: One of the Four Books; a Confucian text written by Mencius, one of Confucius’ most influential disciples.

Chun tzu: In Confucianism, a gentleman, or ethical person.

Communism: A political philosophy that became dominant in China in the early 1900s and remains in place today.

Confucius: A Chinese philosopher who founded Confucianism, a system of moral and political philosophy with religious overtones.

Cosmology: One’s view of the universe as a whole.

Cultural Revolution of 1966: A sweeping reform movement Mao Zedong implemented in order to equalize all aspects of Chinese society; also known as the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution.

Doctrine of the Mean: One of the Four Books; contains a discussion of heavenly virtues.

Feudal tyrant: In Confucianism, the opposite of a sage king. The feudal tyrant abuses power and forces his will on the people.

Five Classics: A collection of Chinese literature consisting of five books: the Book of Changes (I Ching), the Book of History (Shu Ching), the Book of Poetry (Shih Ching), the Book of Rites (Li Ching) and the Spring and Autumn Annals (Ch’un Ch’iu).

Great Learning: One of the Four Books; a collection of Confucian writings related to the Chinese civil service examination.

Han Dynasty: A ruling family in Chinese history (206 BCE to 220 CE) that institutionalized Confucianism.

Hsun Tzu: One of Confucius’ most influential disciples, whose writings introduced Confucianism to the Han Dynasty.

Jen: In Confucianism, a heart of love or benevolence that motivates people to act with propriety.

K’ung Fu-tzu: The Chinese name of Confucius; translates to “Master K’ung.”

Li: In Confucianism, the virtue of propriety, or reciprocity; behavior that fits one’s station in life.

Mencius: One of Confucius’ most influential disciples, whose writings clarified and expanded many of Confucius’ ideas.

Patriarchical: In a given society, paternalism is an emphasis on men.

Political philosophy: The branch of philosophy that deals with the governance of society.

Qufu: A city in the Shandong province of China where Confucius was born; current site of a temple, a cemetery and the Kong family mansion, all of which are sites on a pilgrimage for Confucians.

Sage king: In Confucianism, a wise ruler who wins the hearts of the people and establishes a society based on Confucian principles.

Daoism: A religion of China that often is practiced alongside Confucianism.