6 Chapter 6: Daoism
Introduction
Daoism (also known as Taoism) is a profound and intricate philosophical and religious tradition originating from China, with a rich history spanning over two millennia. The core emphasis of Daoism is on living in perfect harmony with the Dao, a concept translated literally as “the way,” but encompassing a far more complex and nuanced meaning.
The roots of Daoism can be traced back to the 4th century BCE, during the Zhou Dynasty, when philosophical and spiritual explorations were flourishing in ancient China. The Daoist tradition evolved over time, influenced by various intellectual and religious currents, including Confucianism, Legalism, and shamanic practices. At its core, Daoism seeks to guide individuals toward a path of balance, simplicity, and alignment with the natural world. The Dao is seen as the ultimate reality, a mysterious and ever-changing force that underlies all existence. Daoist teachings encourage individuals to cultivate a deep understanding of the Dao, embracing its principles and living in accordance with its rhythms and patterns.
Throughout Chinese history, Daoism has had a profound impact on art, literature, science, and politics, shaping the country’s cultural and intellectual heritage. Its influence extends beyond China, with Daoist ideas and practices resonating in various forms of spirituality and philosophy worldwide.
Questions to Consider as you read this Chapter
- What is the concept of the Dao, and how is it described as the ultimate reality and source of everything?
- How does Daoism view the natural world, and what is the significance of living in harmony with the Dao?
- What are the key teachings of Laozi (Lao Tzu) and Zhuangzi (Chuang Tzu), and how do their ideas shape Daoist philosophy?
- What is the concept of wu wei (non-action), and how does it relate to the idea of living a simple and effortless life?
- How does Daoism view the concept of balance and harmony, and what is the significance of the yin-yang symbol?
- What is the role of meditation and inner cultivation in Daoist practice, and how does it relate to achieving a state of inner balance and harmony?
- How does Daoism influence Chinese culture and society, and what are some examples of its impact on art, literature, and spiritual practices?
The Origins of Daoism
Daoism begins with the Chinese scholar Lao Tzu. The exact dates of his birth and death are unknown, but he lived in China sometime between the 4th and 6th centuries BCE. Lao Tzu worked as an archivist for the emperor of the Zhou Dynasty (1046 to 256 BCE) and was esteemed as a man of great learning. According to legend, he retired from civil service after a quiet career and decided to leave China. The reason for his departure is unknown and has been the subject of much speculation over the years.
Because of his great learning, the emperor considered Lao Tzu a cultural asset and did not want him to leave. He ordered border guards to stop Lao Tzu at the border. According to legend, a guard stopped Lao Tzu at a Chinese border crossing, and Lao Tzu persuaded the guard to let him cross. Before crossing, however, Lao Tzu committed his philosophy to writing. Lao Tzu sat down at the border crossing and wrote the Dao de Ching, the seminal text of Daoism. With his magnum opus completed, Lao Tzu crossed the border and vanished. He was never heard from again. Less is known about Lao Tzu than about the founder of any other world religion. It appears that Lao Tzu was not overly concerned with religion but was interested, like Confucius, in government and ethics. Lao Tzu focused on how people should live and how governments should rule. As his ideas became prominent, a religious system developed around them.
The following chart summarizes the philosophy of Daoism in its earliest days:
| Principle | Mandate |
| Dao is the force behind the unity of the universe. | Do not fight dao; flow with it. |
| Life is the greatest possession. | Find ways to prolong life. |
| Life should be lived simply. | Live quietly, and do not pursue wealth. Strive for small government. |
| Fame and glory are enemies to a simple life. | Practice humility. |
The Historical Development of Religious Daoism
Daoism continued to develop and shift from a purely philosophical system to a predominately religious one. Along with this shift in Daoism, significant cultural and political changes were taking place in China. During the Era of the Warring States (475 BCE to 221 BCE), China consisted of seven feudal states (see map to the left). Fighting for territory and power was a constant reality until China was unified under the Qin Dynasty in 221 BCE It was in this political milieu that Daoism spread and began to be transformed. The Qin Dynasty lasted only 15 years until the Han Dynasty (206 BCE to 220 CE) replaced it. The Han Dynasty would become one of the most influential dynasties in Chinese history, spanning more than 400 years and characterized as promoting the golden age of learning. During this time in Chinese history, learning flourished, and both Daoism and Confucianism spread rapidly.
The Way of the Celestial Masters, also known as the Way of the Five Bushels of Rice, was a sect of Daoism that controlled a state in the Hanzhong Valley. Zhang Daoling founded the sect in 142 CE It lasted until it was assimilated into the Kingdom of Wei in 215 CE The Way of the Celestial Masters taught that the life force emanating from dao is called qi (or chi) and that the way to conform to dao is to achieve the correct balance of positive and negative qi. This idea has continued to influence Daoism and many other Asian religions.
It is not surprising that Daoism would eventually clash with the Han Dynasty, given Daoism’s philosophy that “he rules best who rules least.” Daoists favored a laissez-faire approach to government in which the rulers (to the extent possible) leave people alone to go about their business. As the Han Dynasty tightened its control on the Chinese people, laborers were exploited to create wealth for the ruling class. In 184 CE, a rebellion arose, which came to be known as the Yellow Turban Rebellion. Daoists wearing yellow scarves and turbans seized key cities in China, and an 11-month war ensued. Eventually, the Daoists were defeated, but the military action greatly weakened the infrastructure of the Han Dynasty. Though the Daoist rebels did not achieve the new government they wanted, they did establish Daoism as an influential player in the arena of ideas in ancient China.
The Chinese have always venerated ancestors and revered the elderly. Daoism teaches that a long life is to be desired because life is the only worthy possession. These ideas came together in Daoism; the result was a quest for immortality, or the fountain of youth. As the quest for immortality continued, many gods were added to the Daoist pantheon, including Lao Tzu. Before long, the shift from philosophy to religion was nearly complete.
What Daoists Believe (Solutions to the Problem of Lifelessness)
Philosophical Daoism can be likened to a form of monotheism, where the Dao is considered a singular, ultimate reality, akin to a first principle or prime mover. However, the Dao is not a personal God, as in Islam or Christianity, but rather a metaphysical force that underlies all existence. The Dao represents the eternal cycle of being and non-being, creating, destroying, and sustaining life. In this sense, Daoist gods embody the dynamic, cyclical flow of the Dao.
In religious Daoism, a diverse pantheon of gods is revered. The Jade Emperor, often depicted as the primary deity, is the king of heaven who will ultimately vanquish evil. As the head of the Daoist pantheon, the Jade Emperor is supreme over other gods. Lao Tzu, the founder of Daoism, is also worshipped, alongside the Three Pure Ones: the Jade Pure One (Yuqing), the Supreme Pure One (Shangqing), and the Grand Pure One (Taiqing). This triad represents the purity and essence of the Dao. Rather than being seen as all-powerful deities, these gods are understood as celestial guides, embodying the principles of the Dao and inspiring humans to live in harmony with the natural order.
In addition to these central figures, regional deities and traditional Chinese gods are also revered in Daoist practice. These gods are often associated with specific aspects of nature, human life, or the cosmos, and are revered as manifestations of the Dao’s creative power. By honoring these gods, Daoists seek to align themselves with the natural world and the eternal cycle of the Dao, cultivating a life of balance, harmony, and spiritual growth.
What Daoists Practice (Solutions to the Problem of Lifelessness)
Daoist ethics are built on the view that life should be lived quietly and in harmony with dao. To attain unity with dao, a person must practice self-cultivation because human nature does not automatically align itself with dao. Oneness with dao requires training and cultivation, like a garden. Just as weeds must be meticulously pulled from a garden, vices must be uprooted from one’s life. Daoist ethical principles include nonviolence, quietism, honesty, and harmony with nature and one’s neighbors. Through self-cultivation, Daoists learn to conform their thoughts and actions to dao, which results in transformation. Eventually, Daoists hope to be transformed to the extent that moral behavior becomes spontaneous.
Similar to the Ten Commandments of Judaism and Christianity, Daoists observe the following Ten Precepts:
-
Do not harm or kill living beings (non-violence)
-
Do not steal or take what is not yours (non-stealing)
-
Do not engage in sexual misconduct (chastity)
-
Do not speak falsely or deceive others (truthfulness)
-
Do not take intoxicating substances (sobriety)
-
Do not eat meat or harm living beings (vegetarianism)
-
Do not engage in excessive speech or gossip (mindful speech)
-
Do not engage in idle chatter or frivolous talk (meaningful communication)
-
Do not covet or crave material possessions (detachment)
-
Do not harbor anger, hatred, or resentment (compassion)
Daoist ethics is also quite similar to the ethics of Buddhism and Confucianism, with an emphasis on a well-ordered society and conformity with the natural principle of the universe. Buddhism discusses ethics in terms of karma, while Daoism sees dao as the main principle of moral behavior. In each of these religions, ethics consist of conformity to the first principle of the universe, which is known as wu wei (“without effort”). Daoists strive to do right without effort. They strive to make morality such a natural part of their lives that they do right in the same manner that a tree grows. It is the nature of a tree to grow, and it is the nature of a righteous person to do right.
Sacred Texts in Daoism
The primary sacred text of Daoism is the Dao de Ching (“book of the way”), which Lao Tzu wrote at the Chinese border. The Dao de Ching is more than 5,000 words long, has 81 chapters and is written in poetic form. The theme of the work is that all human effort leads to folly and frustration, particularly in government. Besides the Analects of Confucius, no other book has been as influential in Chinese culture.
Chuang Tzu (c. 369-c.286 B.C.) was a disciple of Lao Tzu. He collected and compiled the writings of early Daoists and tried to persuade the Chinese people to accept Daoism rather than Confucianism. His book (which bears his name), Chuang Tzu, is an important Daoist text because it describes Daoism as a philosophy in its early development. Chuang Tzu presents a philosophy of skepticism in the sense that a person’s ability to comprehend the world is limited and finite, and that dao is beyond the full comprehension of even the deepest thinker. The book discusses political philosophy, ethics, and epistemology. It is written primarily in parables and discussions between Chuang Tzu and other characters.
Another influential Daoist text is the Huai-nan Tzu, named for the book’s author. This book was written around the 2nd century BCE under the supervision of Liu An, a prominent scholar. The Huai-nan Tzu is a synthesis of Daoism, Confucianism, and legalist concepts. Many prominent Chinese philosophical principles are expressed in the Huai-nan Tzu, including the idea of yin and yang, or the balance between dark (yin) and light (yang) energy in the universe.
Sacred People in Daoism
Daoism recognizes several classes of sacred persons. Daoist sacred people are revered for their ability to intercede for people in their quest to achieve dao. The basic holy persons in Daoism are priests and magicians. Daoist priests perform rituals such as prayers and chanting, veneration of the gods and ancestors, and public ceremonies. These priests are known as taoshi. Fang shih (“technique masters”) are Daoist magicians and alchemists reputed to have the ability to communicate with gods and immortals. They also practice healing and astrology.
The Yellow Turbans were a sect of Daoists who rose against the rulers of the Han Dynasty in 184 CE Though the Yellow Turbans were defeated, and many were massacred, they are seen as heroes in Daoism because of their influence in the demise of the Han Dynasty.
A prominent sacred person in Daoism is Chang Dao-ling (2nd century CE). According to tradition, Lao Tzu visited Chang Dao-ling and told him that the world would come to an end. Chang Dao-ling gathered a group of followers who formed the first Daoist monastery and the Way of the Heavenly Teacher, a prominent political group.
Daoist Sacred Space and Time
In Daoism, the concepts of sacred space and sacred time are deeply intertwined. A specific location becomes sacred only when it is being utilized for a sacred purpose, such as the ritual veneration of ancestors. A Daoist priest, or taoshi, consecrates a space for a particular ritual, rendering it sacred for the duration of the ceremony. Once the ritual is complete, the space returns to its ordinary state.
This sacred space can be a common area, such as a private home, or a dedicated temple. China is home to several renowned Daoist temples, including Changchun Temple in Beijing’s Xuanwu district, Baiyun Temple (the largest temple in Beijing), and Baopu Temple in Hangzhou City, Zhejiang province. These temples serve as sacred spaces for various rituals and ceremonies throughout the year.
During a Daoist ritual, the sacred space represents the unity and harmony of the cosmos. In that moment and in that place, all is one with the Dao. The sacred space serves as a bridge between heaven and earth, connecting the divine and the mundane.
In addition to these rituals, Daoists also observe several traditional Chinese festivals each year. These festivals follow the lunar calendar, which is an essential part of Chinese culture and tradition. Some of the most significant festivals include the Lunar New Year (Spring Festival), the Lantern Festival, and the Mid-Autumn Festival. These celebrations often involve rituals, ceremonies, and other sacred activities that bring people together and honor the harmony of the cosmos.
Death and the Afterlife in Daoism
Like Confucianism, Daoism does not have a specific theological doctrine of the afterlife. Daoism teaches that the ideal of life is to flow with dao, to follow the way of the universe, and let the afterlife take care of itself. After one has lived and died, dao will continue to flow; the universe will continue to be one. Dao is the unity of all things; everything is dao, and dao is one. Even with such lofty philosophical rhetoric, Daoists must answer the question: What happens when I die?
Daoists believe that life and death are both parts of dao, the ultimate reality. Both being and nonbeing are part of dao; they are the yin and the yang, the two distinct realities that comprise the whole. Each person has at least two souls (though the actual number has been disputed). The hun soul, which represents the yang, is the spiritual and eternal soul. This soul leaves the body at death and is reincarnated in future bodies. The po soul, which corresponds to the yin, is a physical soul and remains in the body after death. Because all people share in the unity of dao, all people will be born, and all people will die. They will partake in being and nonbeing, both of which are part of dao. In short, there is no afterlife in Daoism—only nonbeing. This state is not something to be feared; it simply is the natural course of dao.
The Chuang Tzu states:
Birth is not a beginning; death is not an end. There is existence without limitation; there is continuity without a starting point. Existence without limitation is space. Continuity without a starting point is time. There is birth, there is death, there is issuing forth, there is entering in.
Daoism honors the tradition of offering gifts to the dead. These gifts often are effigies of desirable objects, such as cars and houses. These effigies are burned as offerings to provide comfort to the departed spirits, as many Daoists believe that their departed loved ones will receive these items in the next life or in the spirit world.
Daoism and Society
Each religion must address the fundamental question of how people interact with one another in society, and Daoism is no exception. In fact, Daoism was founded primarily to offer an alternative perspective on societal relationships. To understand Daoism’s view of society, it’s essential to consider the cultural context in which Lao Tzu developed his philosophy.
During Lao Tzu’s time, Confucianism was the dominant political and social philosophy. Confucius believed that the goal of society was for everyone to fulfill their proper role, and he developed a set of principles to regulate primary relationships, such as those between spouses, fathers and sons, and rulers and subjects. Confucian philosophy revolves around the idea of a well-ordered society, where everyone knows their place and responsibilities.
In contrast, Lao Tzu presented an alternative vision in Daoism. He advocated for people to withdraw from society, renouncing the complexities and corruptions of the worldly life. According to legend, Lao Tzu himself left China to live a quiet life, and many Daoists have followed in his footsteps, becoming hermits and living in caves and grottoes.
However, not all Daoists can or wish to renounce society and live a life of seclusion and poverty. Daoism can also be practiced within society, and an ideal Daoist social order would involve limited government intervention and laissez-faire economics. People would work to meet their needs, and the quality of life would be more important than the quantity of possessions. In this sense, Daoism is compatible with Confucianism, which has been the dominant philosophy in China for over 2,000 years.
Daoism’s emphasis on individual freedom, simplicity, and harmony with nature can complement Confucianism’s focus on social order and responsibility. While Confucianism provides a framework for social relationships and governance, Daoism offers a philosophy for living a simple, balanced, and fulfilling life. Together, they offer a comprehensive approach to living in harmony with oneself, others, and the natural world.
Glossary
Alchemy: A blend of chemistry and magic, usually intended to turn a common item into gold or to find the secret to immortality.
Analects of Confucius: The collected sayings of Confucius, a prominent Chinese philosopher.
Buddhism: A religion that originated in India and has been influential in China for thousands of years.
Chang Dao-ling: A Chinese hermit and Daoist scholar who founded the Way of the Heavenly Master, a sect of Daoism.
Chi: See Qi.
Chuang Tzu: A Daoist scholar who collected early Daoist writings; the title of a book this scholar wrote.
Confucianism: A system of moral and political thought that originated with Confucius and has been the dominant philosophy in China for thousands of years.
Confucius: A prominent Chinese philosopher and the founder of Confucianism.
Cosmos: The universe; the natural order
Dao: The eternal principle of Daoism, translated as “the way”; the proper order of the universe, or the first principle of all things.
Dao de Ching: The seminal sacred text of Daoism, the author of which is Lao Tzu.
Daoism: The Chinese religion that Lao Tzu founded.
Daoshi: In Daoism, a priest.
Epistemology: The philosophical inquiry into the nature of knowledge (i.e., what people can know and how it can be known).
Era of the Warring States: A period of civil war and unrest in China from 475 BCE to 221 BCE
Fang shih: A Daoist magician and alchemist who performs rites and rituals and who may communicate with spirits.
First principle: The underlying reality behind all other reality; see also Dao.
Han Dynasty: The most influential ancient dynasty in China (206 BCE to 220 CE).
Huai-nan Tzu: A book that attempts to synthesize Daoist thought with Confucianism and other Chinese traditions.
Jade Emperor: The highest deity in Daoism; the ruler of the heavens.
Karma: Positive or negative energy acquired as the result of one’s actions.
Laissez-faire: Literally, “let it be”; a system of economics in which government limits its involvement in the market as much as possible.
Lao Tzu: A prominent Chinese philosopher; the founder of Daoism.
Lieh Tzu: A Daoist scholar who attempted to reconcile philosophical and religious trends in Daoism.
Monastery: A house for monks who live together for the purpose of religious devotion and practice.
Monotheism: The belief in only one God.
Pantheon: A collection of gods and goddesses that a given religion worships.
Prime mover: See First principle.
Proverb: A short saying that expresses a profound truth.
Qi: According to the Way of the Celestial Masters, the life force of the dao.
Qin Dynasty: The ruling family that united China in 221 BCE and brought an end to the Era of the Warring States.
Ten Precepts: In Daoism, 10 guiding principles for moral behavior.
Three Pure Ones: In Daoism, three gods often found together in the Pantheon.
Tsao Chun: In Daoism, the god of the stove; the first god to be worshipped in Daoism.
Way of the Celestial Masters: A sect of Daoism that emphasizes the role of qi, or the life force of the dao, in the process of transformation.
Way of the Five Bushels of Rice: See Way of the Celestial Masters.
Way of the Heavenly Teacher: A sect of Daoism that Chang Dao-ling founded.
Wu wei: A Daoist principle that means “without effort” and holds that moral behavior should arise spontaneously.
Yellow Turbans: A sect of Daoists who participated in the Yellow Turban Rebellion in 184 CE
Yellow Turban Rebellion: A popular Daoist uprising against the Han Dynasty in 184 CE
Yin and yang: In most Eastern dualistic thought, the balance between dark (yin) and light (yang) energy in the universe.
Zhou Dynasty: The longest-lasting dynasty (1046 BCE to 256 BCE) in Chinese history.
