7 Chapter 7: Hinduism

Introduction

Hinduism is the world’s third-largest religion, with a rich and diverse history spanning over 4,000 years. Originating in the Indian subcontinent, it is a complex and multifaceted faith that encompasses a wide range of philosophical, cultural, and religious traditions. Hinduism is not just a religion but a dharma, a way of life that guides its adherents on a path of spiritual growth, self-realization, and harmony with the universe.

Hinduism is often referred to as the “oldest religion” in the world, with a history that predates many other major faiths. Its ancient scriptures, the Vedas, contain wisdom and knowledge that have been passed down through generations, shaping the beliefs and practices of Hindus worldwide.  With its roots in ancient Vedic civilization, Hinduism has evolved over time, absorbing and assimilating various influences from other cultures and religions. This fusion of diverse traditions has resulted in a unique and vibrant faith that is practiced not only in India but also in Southeast Asia, Sri Lanka, and other parts of the world.

From the majestic temples of India to the vibrant festivals and ceremonies, Hinduism is a living, breathing faith that continues to inspire and guide millions of people around the world. Its teachings on karma, reincarnation, and the cycle of birth and death offer a profound understanding of the human condition, while its emphasis on spiritual growth, compassion, and selfless service provide a path for personal transformation and enlightenment.

The Historical Development of Hinduism

Hinduism began with the ancient peoples of India and is the culmination of their mythology and oral history. The daily life practices evolved as the religion followed by the Hindus came to be known as ‘Hinduism.’ The term generally denotes the religious, philosophical, and cultural traditions native to the Indian subcontinent.” Because of India’s massive size and ancient history, it is impossible to construct a concise history of Hinduism; however, it is accurate to say that Hinduism is the synthesis of a variety of myths and minor religions and mythologies. Much like the rivers of India, these myths and religions converge into a single, monolithic religion called Hinduism.

As other religions and philosophies made inroads into India, Hinduism absorbed, assimilated, and adopted these traditions, contributing to the evolution of contemporary Hinduism.  Unlike many other religious traditions, Hinduism does not offer just one path to enlightenment and liberation, or indeed just one answer to what happens to us when we die.

What Hindus Believe (Solutions to the Problem of Samsara)

Hinduism is perhaps the most complex religion, theologically speaking. Hindu beliefs about god and god’s nature are wide and varied.  In a famous passage from the Upanishads, a questioner asks the great spiritual guide Yajnavalkya:

“Just how many gods are there?”  In response he cites a sacred hymn, singing: “Three and three hundred!  Three and three thousand!” But when he asked Yajnavalkya again, “But how many are there really?” He said, “Thirty-three.”  But the man persisted, “But how many are there really?” “Six.”  “But how many are there really?” “Three.” “But how many are there really?” “Two.” “But how many are there really?” “One and a half.” “But how many are there really?” “One.”

Yajnavalkya’s ancient utterance carries great weight in how later Hinduism forms its understanding of the mystery and majesty of God’s being.  Most Hindus believe that the divine is simultaneously one and many.  Since god is all-pervasive, all things can be seen as being god’s forms.  For Hindus, the multiplicity of the universe is paradoxically also an expression of the unity of god.  Thus, Hindus worship many deities while also affirming the singularity of the divine.  Each of these deities is an avatar – a manifestation of some aspect, facet, or expression of god.  Although some describe Hinduism as a polytheistic religion, this is not technically true.  Hinduism regards each manifestation of god in physical form as an embodiment of the ultimate one divine reality.

There are countless names for god in Hinduism.  However, since the time of the Upanishads, Brahman has been the most commonly used. Worshipers see Brahman as an absolute and impersonal deity. All other Hindu gods are seen as expressions of Brahman. The Hindu mantra, “Brahman is atman,” means that Brahman is the soul of everything. All living things—people, plants, and animals—are Brahman. Each participates in the being of Brahman. All things share the essence of god, of Brahman.

Hindus believe that all other gods are manifestations of Brahman. As later sects of Hinduism developed, deities such as Vishnu, Shiva, and the Great Goddess came to be identified with Brahman.  Brahman represents the transcendent focus of Hinduism; as the ultimate divine reality, God cannot be known fully – for Hindus the Divine Self is unfathomable and only can be described in terms of “Not this!  Not that!” (Upanishads)

However, even while Hinduism has a speculative side that often asserts the impossibility of knowing Brahman’s true nature, it is also an intensely imagistic religious tradition.  Images of gods, celestials, and mythical beasts decorate temples and homes alike.  Such love and relish for the divine form emerge from Hindu notions of the simultaneous immanence and transcendence of god.  It is primarily through images that god manifests and is accessible to devotees and pilgrims.  Yet, ultimately god is without attribute or form, a transcendent being that exists beyond thought and conception.  It is this paradoxical duality that images of god represent.

Since the divine is in everything (a belief known as panentheism), it follows that the natural world is the most immediate and obvious expression of the divine.  As we will see, many sacred sites reverenced by Hindus are part of the natural world: rivers, mountains, the sun, trees, animals, etc.

Thus, Hinduism teaches that the divine is made known in the world in various ways.  We have already discussed two ways: the image and the natural world.  Another crucial way in which the divine is made present in the daily lives of worshipers is in the form of an avatar.  For Hindus, even though the divine’s essential nature is unchangeable, the divine being chooses to intervene in the world at a time when intervention is necessary and in the form of an avatar that is completely divine.  As the Bhagavad Gita explains:

Though myself unborn, undying, the lord of creation, I fashion nature, which is mine, and I come into being through my own magic. Whenever sacred duty decays and chaos prevails, then, I create myself.  To protect men of virtue and destroy men who do evil, to set the standard of sacred duty, I appear in age after age.  (4:6-8)

Outside of India, one of the most popular and well-known expressions of Hinduism is the International Society for Krishna Consciousness, also known as the Hare Krishna movement. The Hare Krishna movement brought Hinduism to the American public in the 1960s. One example of the popularity of this movement is the pilgrimage of the music group the Beatles to India in 1968 to seek the wisdom of a guru. Another example is singer George Harrison’s later recording of a song in honor of Krishna. This 20th century movement centers on the worship of Krishna, a Hindu god who has risen to a place of importance.  Krishna is seen as the human incarnation of Vishnu, or Vishnu’s avatar. Krishna is the most beautiful of all Hindu gods and is the god most interested in human affairs.

What Hindus Practice (Solutions to the Problem of Samsara)

Hindu moral reasoning is intricately connected with Hindu philosophy and theology, making the way that Hinduism views the world of great importance for Hindu ethics.  The primary theological and philosophical influences on Hindu ethics are dharma, karma, and reincarnation (i.e., soul transmigration). Dharma is a Sanskrit (i.e., ancient language of India) word meaning “the payment of a debt.” Dharma is the idea that ethics spring from doing one’s duty, both socially and religiously. The fulfillment of these duties is dharma. Dharma can be seen as the order that upholds the universe by dictating the duties, prescriptions, and obligations of all beings.  Thus, Hindu ethics are deontological as opposed to utilitarian.Deontological ethics are based on a belief in moral action as the fulfillment of duty.

Fulfilling one’s dharma leads to the creation of good karma.  Karma, in turn, produces a better moral character in this life and a better life in the next reincarnation.  Karma refers to the Law of Causation, of cause and effect.  Karma is the good or bad energy a soul acquires through a person’s actions. Moral righteousness produces good karma, which brings good things to the moral man or woman. Evil actions produce bad karma, which can bring suffering and evil to the wicked person. “The literal meaning of karma is ‘work,’ but as a doctrine it means, roughly, the moral law of cause and effect.” Because of the cause-and-effect relationship between moral behavior and the quality of one’s karma, an incentive exists for moral behavior within Hinduism.

The law of karma is intimately connected to the notion of samsara.  Hindus believe in reincarnation, or soul transmigration. When a person dies, that person is reborn in a new body. One’s karma in this life has a direct impact on one’s existence in the next life.  Good karma ensures favorable rebirths, while negative karma leads to the opposite.

The ultimate goal for Hindus is found beyond samsara.  Human beings are trapped in samsara – in which the nature of each new existence is wholly determined by his or her previous action. Identifying with the limited self as the agent of action binds the fruit of those acts to the soul.    Liberation, or moksha, is achieved only when the conscious self is radically transformed by relinquishing identification with the limited, temporal self and seeing that it is God or Brahman who is the true agent of all activity. At that moment, one perceives ultimate reality.  When one recognizes the true nature of atman and apprehends its relation to God, then moksha is achieved.

Hinduism provides a number of paths out of samsara.  One can renounce the world, limiting one’s actions in it, and thereby curtailing the results.  A person can also surrender to God.  Meditation and ritual action are other means some Hindus pursue in order to escape the binds of samsara.

Sacred Texts in Hinduism

Hinduism recognizes a wide variety of sacred texts that have arisen over a period of several thousand years. Because of the wide variety of views about god, Hinduism takes a fluid view of inspiration; Hindu scriptures are the insights and spiritual guidance provided by the great sages of the past.

The oldest Hindu scriptures are the Vedas. The Vedas are a collection of four hymns for meditation: Rigveda, Yajurveda, Sama-Veda, and Atharva-Veda. One of the most popular hymns in the Rig Veda is the Hymn to Agni, the god of fire:

I call upon Agni, the one placed in front, the divine priest of the sacrifice, the invoker, the best bestower of gifts.  Agni is worthy of being called upon by seers past and present: may he bring the gods here!  Through Agni may one obtain wealth and prosperity day by day, splendid and abounding in heroic sons.

O Agni, the sacrifice and work of the sacrifice, which you encompass on all sides—that alone goes to the gods. May Agni, the invoker who has the powers of a sage, true and most brilliant in glory, come here, a god with the gods! Whatsoever favor you wish to do for a worshipper, Agni, that favor of yours surely comes true, O Angiras [member of a priestly family].

O Agni, you who gleam in the darkness, to you we come day by day, with devotion and bearing homage; to you, ruler of the sacrifices, keeper of the Rta [cosmic law], brightly shining, growing in your abode. So, be of easy access to us, Agni, as a father to his son. Abide with us for our well- being.

The Upanishads (literally “sitting near,” as a student sitting near and listening to a teacher) are a later Hindu scripture, dating to about 500 BCE. A number of authors, many of whom are anonymous, wrote the Upanishads. They contain primarily philosophical treatises and were written to express the Hindu idea of unity in diversity, or unity in a diverse universe. Specific to the Upanishads is the popular Hindu saying, “Brahman is atman” (i.e., God is everything). The Upanishads express this idea well:

Verily, this whole world is Brahman. Tranquil, let one worship it as from which he came forth, as that into which he will be dissolved, as that in which he breathes.

Now, verily a person consists of purpose. According to the purpose which a person has in this world, thus does he become on departing hence. So, let him form for himself a purpose.

He who consists of mind, whose body is life, whose form is light, whose conception is truth, whose soul is space, containing all works, containing all tastes, encompassing this whole world, the unspeaking, the unconcerned—this Soul of mine within the heart is smaller than a grain of rice, or a barley-corn, or a mustard-seed, or a grain of millet, or the kernel of a grain of millet; this Soul of mine within the heart is greater than the earth, greater than the atmosphere, greater than the sky, greater than these worlds.

Containing all works, containing all desires, containing all odors, containing all tastes, encompassing this whole world, the unspeaking, the unconcerned—this is the Soul of mine within the heart, this is Brahman. Into him I shall enter on departing hence. If one would believe this, he would have no more doubt.

Another influential Hindu scripture is the Laws of Manu. Manu, the first Hindu king to rule the earth, authored these laws to establish societal guidelines for maintaining social order. The text arose around 100 BCE and establishes the social rules of the caste system, which was a standard feature of Hindu society in the past.

The best known Hindu scripture in the West is the Bhagavad Gita. The Bhagavad Gita is known as the “New Testament of Hinduism” or “The Gospel of Krishna.” The Bhagavad Gita is an epic poem that tells the story of Arjuna, a brave warrior whom Lord Krishna taught.

For most Hindus, however, belief, tradition, ethics, and practice all largely informed and disseminated through the vast body of Hindu storytelling traditions and narrative texts.  Two of the most significant of these are the two epics: the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.

Sacred People in Hinduism

Hinduism recognizes three types of sacred people: Brahmins (not to be confused with Brahma or Brahman, discussed above), gurus, and yogi. Brahmins serve as the priests and sages of the Hindu tradition. Brahmins are the priestly caste among Hindus and perform various Hindu worship rituals. These worship rituals include singing and chanting, dancing, prayer and recitation of scriptures, ceremonial bathing, and offerings to various gods.

Gurus are wise men who have dedicated their lives to the study of Hindu scriptures and who gather followers around themselves. It is not uncommon for a guru to leave India and go to another country to gather followers and spread the message of Hinduism. Gurus explain to their followers the scriptures, the gods, and the basic principles of living. The term guru has also come to be applied popularly to anyone with specialized expertise (such as a technical guru), but the original term applies to a teacher of Hinduism.

Yogis are men and women who have devoted their lives to following Hinduism. Hinduism pervades every area of their lives. Their work, relationships, and actions reflect the influence of Hindu principles. For yogis, the process, rather than the end result, is what matters. The Bhagavad Gita says, “He who does the task dictated by duty, caring nothing for the fruit of the action, he is a yogi.”  Unlike the Brahmins, gurus and yogi may come from any caste in the Hindu social structure. These holy people attain their status through a lifetime of religious devotion, study, and worship.

Sacred Space in Hinduism

Sacred Time in Hinduism

For Hindus, all of life is sacred. Each person who is born has been born before and will be born again. Within Hinduism a sacred pattern of life has emerged, as each person passes through four phases of life. Each phase of life is holy and is to be observed accordingly.

The first sacred phase of life is that of a student. This phase typically begins between the ages of 8 and 12, depending on the child’s maturity and family situation. The student may live in the house of a teacher or remain at home. The purpose of this phase of life is not so much to acquire knowledge as it is to learn habits and patterns of living that will produce good karma. This period of life lasts approximately 12 years and can be compared to an apprenticeship in the skill of living rightly.

The second phase of life is that of a householder. Released from apprenticeship, the young adult Hindu may marry and start a family. In the prime of life, Hindus are expected to devote their energy to three duties: one’s family, one’s work, and one’s community. It is expected that approximately equal energy be committed to each area. Hindus are expected to spend roughly 30 years raising their family, working for a living, and improving their community.

The third phase may be compared to retirement. After the birth of grandchildren, aged Hindus begin to be relieved of social duties. Social duties include the responsibility to better one’s community and the responsibility to family and career. The idea is that life should be understood before it ends. These mature Hindus have studied during their youth and worked as an adult. Now, in old age, their duty is to reflect on life, gaining wisdom and good karma  that will carry the soul into its next incarnation.

The last phase, which is not always attained, is that of a sannyasin. According to the Bhagavad Gita, a sannyasin is a person who “neither hates nor loves anything.” Sannyasins have been liberated from their and simply live—as objective, detached observers of life.  Sannyasins literally do not care. They may be hungry or cold, but it does not matter. They may live or die, but it makes  no difference to them. Sannyasins observe life but do not have a stake in what happens to the body.

Within Hinduism as a whole, three major religious holidays are observed: Holi, Divali, and Dasehra. Holi is the most popular of the Hindu festivals. Holi welcomes the spring and is dedicated to the god Krishna. Divali, which takes place in November, is the celebration of the Hindu New Year. This festival of lights celebrates the goddesses Kali and Lakshmi. During Divali, many Hindus make pilgrimages to holy sites associated with these goddesses. Dasehra is a 9-day festival in October that commemorates the victory of the goddess Durga over a mythical buffalo demon. These festivals are celebrated with fireworks, lights, bright colors, music, and dancing. The festival of Divali takes place during the darkest part of the lunar cycle so that the bright lights stand in contrast to natural darkness.

Karma, Death, and Rebirth in Hinduism

Hinduism offers a distinct perspective on the cycle of life and death, diverging from the concept of a single life followed by eternal judgment. Instead, Hinduism teaches that each individual soul embarks on a journey of multiple lives, experiencing a cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. This cycle, known as samsara, continues until the soul achieves spiritual liberation, or nirvana.

Through each life, the soul accumulates karma, with the goal of attaining moral perfection and ultimately merging with the universal soul, Brahman. As the Bhagavad Gita eloquently states, “Worn-out garments are shed by the body; worn-out bodies are shed by the dweller.” This process of shedding old bodies and accumulating new experiences continues until the soul reaches its ultimate destination.

Nirvana represents the absorption of the individual soul into the oneness of the universe, where the distinctions between the self (atman) and the universe (Brahman) dissolve. In this state, the soul realizes its true nature, and the Hindu expression “Brahman is atman” is fulfilled: everything is god, god is everything, and the soul is Brahman.

In Hinduism, the cycle of birth and rebirth is not a punishment, but a natural process of growth and evolution. Each life offers an opportunity for spiritual growth, learning, and self-improvement, ultimately leading the soul closer to the state of nirvana. This belief system encourages individuals to embrace the present life as a chance to accumulate good karma, cultivate spiritual awareness, and move closer to the ultimate goal of unity with the universe.

Hinduism and Society

Glossary

Atheism: The belief that there is no god.

Atman: The soul; the center of existence of all things.

Avatar: A manifestation of the one true God in a form that can be understood and approached by a human being; God taking a physical form

Bhagavad Gita: A Hindu scripture in the form of an epic poem that describes Krishna’s teaching the warrior Arjuna.

Brahman: Brahman is the supreme God; the ultimate sacred divine reality

Brahmin: The class of Hindu priests.

Caste system: The social structure in which different social classes perform different roles in society and have differing levels of rights.

Dasehra: A Hindu festival dedicated to the goddess Durga.

Deontological ethics: A system of ethics based on moral action as the fulfillment of duty.

Dharma: Literally, “paying a debt”; in Hinduism, the performance of one’s moral duty.

Divali: Festival that celebrates the Hindu New Year.

Guru: In Hinduism, an expert on the Hindu scriptures and way of life.

Hare Krishna: Another name for the International Center for Krishna Consciousness; a popular organization dedicated to the worship of Krishna.

Holi: A Hindu spring festival dedicated to the god Krishna.

Karma: In Hinduism, the good or bad energy a soul collects and attracts.

Krishna: The avatar, or human form on earth, of the god Vishnu.

Laws of Manu: A Hindu scripture in which the laws and norms of the caste system are set forth.

Moksha: liberation from samsara

Nirvana: In Hinduism, the liberation of the soul from the cycle of birth and rebirth.

Pantheism: The belief that everything is god or that some aspect of divinity is contained in everything.

Polytheism: The belief in two or more gods.

Reincarnation: In Hinduism, the belief that a person is born many times in many bodies.

Samsara: the cycle of life, death, and rebirth in which human beings are trapped until they obtain moksha

Sannyasin: The final stage in the Hindu lifecycle in which Hindus rise above desire

Sanskrit: An ancient language of India.

Satygraha: Literally, “truth force”; the principle of nonviolence that Mahatma Gandhi popularized.

Syncretistic: Describes a religion that has the ability to absorb and assimilate the beliefs of another religion.

Upandishads: A collection of Hindu scriptures consisting of philosophical questions and discourses.

Utilitarian ethics: A system of ethics based on bringing about a good result from moral behavior.

Vedas: The oldest Hindu scriptures, which consist primarily of a collection of hymns to various gods.

Yogi: Devoted practitioners of Hinduism who allow Hinduism to pervade every area of their lives.