8 Chapter 8: Buddhism

Introduction

Buddhism, the world’s fourth-largest religion, boasts more than 520 million followers, comprising about 7% of the global population. Like other religious traditions, Buddhism encompasses a diverse array of traditions, spiritual practices, and beliefs rooted in the original teachings of the Buddha. Originating in India sometime between the 4th and 6th centuries BCE, Buddhism has since spread throughout much of Southeast and East Asia. The two predominant branches of Buddhism are:

• Mahayana: prevalent in China, Japan, Taiwan, Korea, Singapore, and Vietnam.
• Theravada: prevalent in Thailand, Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Laos, and Burma.

Other notable forms of Buddhism include:

• Tibetan Buddhism: prominent in Tibet, Nepal, Mongolia, Bhutan, and parts of Russia and northern India.
• Zen Buddhism: a variant of Mahayana Buddhism emphasizing simplicity and meditation.
• Nirvana Buddhism: closely associated with Theravada Buddhism, focusing on attaining pure enlightenment.

Central to Buddhist teachings is the concept of suffering and its origins, with an emphasis on achieving enlightenment—a state of inner peace and wisdom—through moral conduct, meditation, and insight. Buddhists also subscribe to the principles of karma (the law of cause and effect) and reincarnation (the perpetual cycle of rebirth), finding spiritual solace through worship in temples or within their own homes.

The Origins of Buddhism

Buddhism stems from ancient Hinduism. Sometime in the 4th-5th century BCE, Siddhartha Gautama was born into a wealthy family in Lumbini (in present-day Nepal). According to the stories told about his life, a wise man made a prediction at Siddhartha’s birth that the child would either become a very holy man or a powerful king. Siddhartha’s father, hearing this prediction, decided to shelter his son and give him everything he desired in the hope that Siddhartha would reject the religious life and pursue political power. Siddhartha later married, had a child and enjoyed the pleasures of a wealthy life secluded in a luxurious palace.

One day, according to tradition, Siddhartha ventured out of his life of seclusion and into a nearby village. There he saw the four sights, which thrust him into his spiritual quest. He saw an old man, bent over with age, carrying a bundle of firewood. As he journeyed further, he saw a dying man crippled with disease. Next, he saw the funeral procession of a dead man. Finally, at the side of the road, he saw a holy man meditating. These four sights so moved Siddhartha that he left his life of luxury, his wife, and son, and he became a disciple of several Hindu gurus. He devoted his life to meditation and study.  While meditating under a tree at Bodh Gaya, India, Siddhartha experienced enlightenment with a sudden revelation of the truth. The year of this event is uncertain, but Siddhartha was approximately 35 years old when he experienced enlightenment. He then formulated his primary doctrines: the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path. He began to preach his doctrines and to engage in conversation with Hindu sages and gurus. Siddhartha became known as Buddha, or the “blessed one.” To his followers, was seen as a guide to enlightenment.

Slowly, Buddhism began to emerge as a religion separate and distinct from its Hindu roots. Siddhartha was a Hindu and initially approached his religious quest within a Hindu framework. However, as he articulated his Four Noble Truth after his enlightenment, and the Noble Eightfold Path, Siddhartha presented a new religion as an alternative to Hinduism. As Buddhism spread to Asian cultures, most notably China, Korea and Japan, it began to take on various forms.

The Historical Development of Buddhism

As Buddhism spread throughout Asia, different interpretations of Buddha’s teachings emerged. Buddhism spread primarily through commerce along the Silk Road, a major trade route through China. As Indian merchants bought and sold goods with Chinese merchants, they spread Buddhist philosophy. The Chinese found the religion of Buddhism quite compatible with Confucianism and Daoism, so it was readily accepted. From China, Buddhism spread to Japan, Korea and other Southeast Asian nations. Differences in interpretation resulted from Buddhism’s assimilation into various cultures, while others stemmed from theological differences among Buddha’s followers. The various denominations of Buddhism are known as schools of Buddhism.

Theravada Buddhism is found primarily in Southeast Asia, particularly Burma and Thailand. Theravada Buddhism is a structured form of Buddhism that centers on the life of the monastery. Theravada Buddhists believe that Buddha was a great moral and spiritual teacher, and that emulating his life can lead to enlightenment. Buddha is not a god in the sense that other religions believe that their God is external to the created order. Buddha had achieved Nirvana and could help others achieve it as well, but he is not the sovereign ruler of the universe like Yahweh or Allah. Theravada Buddhism insists that Siddhartha was a human being who achieved final Nirvana and died never to be reborn. Theravada Buddhism places great importance on the role of monks.

Monks are the closest to enlightenment, as the monastic life is the ideal Buddhist life in the Theravada tradition. Theravada Buddhism has something to offer common people as well. Monks earn their living by begging (this is believed to be the best way to learn humility), and common people can earn merit by giving food and clothing to the monks. This is a mutually beneficial relationship; the monks receive their livelihood and the merit of humility, and the benefactors receive merit for providing for the monks’ needs.

Mahayana Buddhism is one of the most widespread forms of Buddhism and is prevalent across China, Japan and Korea. Mahayana Buddhism may be called “the people’s Buddhism.” Unlike Theravada Buddhism, which emphasizes strict monasticism, Mahayana Buddhism provides a path for enlightenment and salvation for the common person. Within Mahayana Buddhism, there are many Buddhas (blessed ones) who have attained enlightenment and serve as Bodhisattvas, or deliverers. These enlightened ones do not merely offer an example to follow, as in Theravada Buddhism; instead, they actually assist others in achieving enlightenment. They are enlightened souls who help other souls attain enlightenment. Mahayana Buddhism is popular because it offers its followers help in attaining Nirvana, and it offers a more optimistic view of the afterlife as liberation from desire or ignorance. Prominent Mahayana Buddhists include the Rev. Jack Austin, who led the spread of Buddhism in England and Wales; the Rev. Harry Pieper, who introduced Buddhism to Germany; and Vasubandhu, a famous Buddhist scholar in ancient India.

A specific form of Buddhism—known as Vajrayana, or Tantric, Buddhism—exists in Tibet. Tantric Buddhism is a combination of Mahayana Buddhism and local Himalayan mystical or magical practices. An example of a unique Tantric Buddhist idea is the doctrine of incarnate lamas. According to this view, certain lamas, such as the Dalai Lama, may choose the exact manner of their next birth. These lamas may choose to be reborn as a man, woman or an animal. Ordinary Buddhists have no control over the exact form of their future births; all they can do is follow the Noble Eightfold Path to attain better incarnation.

In Japan and in the West, the most widely practiced form of Buddhism is Zen Buddhism. Zen Buddhism seeks satori (enlightenment) through meditation and mental, spiritual and physical exercises. Zen Buddhism is a form a Mahayana Buddhism. Rather than seeking theoretical or philosophical knowledge about enlightenment, Zen Buddhism seeks the experience of satori. This experience comes from physical exercises, such as yoga, and mental activities such as meditation and pondering the answers to riddles from Zen scriptures.

What Buddhists Believe (Solutions to the Problem of Suffering)

As is the case with its Hindu origins, a variety of theological positions exist within Buddhism. Originally, Buddhism was a non-theistic religion in that it did not teach the existence of a god or gods. It spoke instead of a single, monolithic whole that is the universe and of which all people belong. There is no God reigning over the universe from outside. Theravada Buddhism continues this traditional thought and can be classified as a non-theistic, or at least agnostic, religion.

Within Mahayana Buddhism, another theology has emerged. This theology sees Buddha not merely as a guide and example, as in Theravada Buddhism, but as a sacred being who can help others to achieve enlightenment.  As this branch of Buddhism developed, the Mahayanists began to teach that the Buddha was a compassionate, eternal, and almost divine being who came to earth in the form of a man because he loved humankind and wished to help others achieve the state of enlightenment.  Mahayana Buddhism also teaches that Siddhartha Gautama is not the only Buddha; other “blessed ones” exist who can help people attain Nirvana. Some Mahayana Buddhists see the gods of other religions as incarnations of various Buddhas. One of the more popular branches of Mahayana Buddhism is a group called the Pure Land sect. The Pure Land sect teaches that Nirvana is a land of bliss—a heaven over which a merciful god named Amitab rules.

In short, Buddhists have a variety of human needs to be met. Their religious experience raises questions and faces problems that are not solved in the human context. They extend their minds, hearts, and hands to a source, person, or deity beyond themselves.

Another key belief that is central to Buddhism is the notion of “impermanence.”  The doctrine asserts that all of conditioned existence, without exception, is “transient, evanescent, inconstant.” All temporal things, whether material or mental, are compounded objects in a continuous change of condition, subject to decline and destruction.  All physical and mental events, states Buddhism, come into being and dissolve.  Nothing is permanent.

What Buddhists Practice (Solutions to the Problem of Suffering)

Buddhism is more a system of ethics than a system of religion. Widely divergent views regarding theology exist within the various schools of Buddhism. More unanimity exists regarding how Buddhists should live their lives, and most agree that an ethical life leads to a better life after death, whatever form that may take.

The centerpiece of Buddhist ethics is a collection of ideas known as the Four Noble Truths. These truths originated with Siddhartha Gautama and are found in every school of Buddhism. The Four Noble Truths are as follows:

1. Life includes suffering. Everyone who is born will suffer in many ways. Even pleasure involves suffering because it will come to an end.
2. Suffering is a result of desire. People suffer hunger, for example, when they would rather be well-fed, and the suffering of cold is a result of an unfulfilled desire for warmth. If one desires nothing in particular, then one will not suffer when deprived of something.
3. A lack of desire leads to no suffering. If one desires nothing, one will not suffer.
4. Desire and suffering can be eliminated. Desire, and therefore suffering, can be eliminated if one follows the Noble Eightfold Path.

As Buddhists follow the Noble Eightfold Path, they accumulate good karma, which leads to a favorable reincarnation after death and continued progression toward Nirvana.  The Noble Eightfold Path is intended to be a guide for the ideal Buddhist life, whether that life is lived as a monk in a monastery or as a working person going about the daily affairs of life. The Noble Eightfold path is divided into three categories: wisdom, moral conduct and mental discipline. Buddha taught that if people can focus each area of their life rightly, then they can attain Nirvana.

The Noble Eightfold Path

Wisdom alone is not enough, however. One also must do the right actions. The second tenet of the Noble Eightfold Path is moral conduct. Ethics, in any religion, must address the actions of a life well-lived, and Buddhism is no exception. Moral conduct is divided into three areas: right speech, right action and right livelihood. Right speech refers to saying the right words at the right moment. When in doubt, silence is preferable to saying the wrong words. Right action involves understanding the correct actions to take in any given circumstance and following through on those actions. The principle of right action applies particularly to one’s relationships with other people. Central to Buddhism is the idea of nonviolence; nonviolence is a part of right action toward others. Finally, one must earn one’s livelihood through the right career. This career may vary according to the individual or the school of Buddhism one practices. For a monk, the right career is begging and meditating. For a business person, the right career is forthright dealing. For a farmer or trades person, the right career is hard manual labor. One cannot be a faithful Buddhist and bring harm to others; therefore, dealing in arms, slaves, intoxicants, and other morally dubious items is forbidden.

Finally, the Noble Eightfold Path touches on the inner life of Buddhists. Buddhism requires mental discipline. Mental discipline requires that one have the right effort, the right mindfulness and the right concentration. Right effort means bringing one’s mind under the control of the will. The mind is disciplined and can be directed where the Buddhist desires. Much like the muscles are trained to obey the will and perform the action the person desires, the mind must be similarly disciplined. After right effort has been achieved, right mindfulness can follow. Right mindfulness involves using the will to focus the mind on what is desired—namely, the thoughts upon which the Buddhist is meditating. The third element of mental discipline is right concentration, or meditation. After one has brought the mind under the control of the will (right effort) and focused it on the object desired (right mindfulness), only then can one truly meditate (right concentration).

The goal of Buddhist ethics is to attain Nirvana. Nirvana is a nebulous concept that is difficult to clearly define. A common analogy for explaining Nirvana is a flame. Where does the flame go when it is extinguished? It does not go anywhere; it simply ceases to be. This represents the earliest conception of Nirvana and the one Theravada Buddhism embraces. According to this conception of Nirvana, the individual soul is absorbed into the world soul, and the Buddhist becomes one with everything.   A comparison may be made to a drop of water falling into the ocean. The water is absorbed and assimilated and becomes an indistinguishable part of the whole. So, it is with the soul who has reached Nirvana, according to Theravada Buddhism.

Mahayana Buddhism has a different view of Nirvana—one that is closer to the idea of heaven in many other religions. The Mahayana first speak of a heaven, a Buddha land, to which faithful Buddhists are transported at death. The Amida Buddha, prominent among Japanese Buddhists, is a cosmic deity who has attained the Buddha nature. He has a heaven of bliss called the Pure Land, he offers compassion to people who honor him, and he promises them a heavenly reward in his paradise.

Like Hindus, Buddhists use the term samsara to describe the flow of birth and rebirth leading to Nirvana. All major schools of Buddhism believe in reincarnation, o rsoul transmigration.   According to this doctrine, a soul is born repeatedly in different bodies in a cycle of birth and death until Nirvana is reached. The goal of Buddhist ethics is to break out of this cycle and attain Nirvana, however Nirvana is conceived.

Buddhists also place great emphasis on the importance of developing compassion for all living creatures.  Buddhists believe that while Nirvana is the ultimate goal, it is difficult to reach. Thus, Buddhism teaches its followers that the practical and realistic aim  of life should be to develop compassion, a warm heart, serving other people, helping others, respecting others, being less selfish. By practicing these, Buddhists believe that they can conquer suffering and be happy.

Sacred Texts in Buddhism

The Buddhist tradition is rich in sacred texts. Each school of Buddhism has a unique set of scriptures. One element that all schools of Buddhism share is the Words of the Dharma, or the teachings of Buddha. Traditionally, Buddhists meet to recite the Words of the Dharma.  Theravada and Mahayana Buddhists may recite and discuss different texts, but there is a long- standing tradition of gathering to hear and recite sacred texts. Sometimes, a monk delivers a sermon or explanation about the text that was recited. These meetings may be compared to a council meeting, in which Buddhist elders recite texts and offer explanation; a single individual does not lead the meeting.

The Theravada canon of scriptures is known as the Tripitaka (“three baskets”). The Tripitaka was originally written in the Pali language and contains sermons and lectures of Buddha along with philosophical texts and guidelines for the monastic life. The Tripitaka circulated in an oral tradition from Siddhartha’s time until the 3rd century BCE when it was written and systematized.

The Mahayana scriptures were written first in the Sanskrit language (a derivative of the Indian language) but later assimilated texts from Chinese, Korean, and Japanese authors in those languages. Because the Mahayana texts are so numerous, it has been said that a monk cannot read all of them in one lifetime. The collection continues to grow. A clearly defined Mahayana canon of scripture does not exist; nor is there widespread agreement on which books Mahayana Buddhists should and should not study.  Buddhists remain open to the inclusion of new texts from time to time.

As offshoots of Mahayana Buddhism, Tantric Buddhism and Zen Buddhism have a wide variety of sacred texts with scant uniformity. These texts were written over a vast period and numbered in the thousands. Tantric Buddhism is practiced primarily in Tibet, while Zen Buddhism is prominent in Japan. Zen Buddhist writings use a unique approach not found in other forms of Buddhism: mondo and koan. Mondo is a rapid series of questions and answers between a teacher and a pupil. In mondo, the pupil asks the teacher a question, and the teacher replies, usually with an enigmatic answer. The pupil is left to ponder the meaning of the answer. Koan consists of puzzles and questions that can provide fodder for meditation. The famous question “What is the sound of one hand clapping?” is an example of koan. Mondo and koan are thought to have been developed in the 11th century CE in Japan.

Sacred People in Buddhism

Arhats, or saints, are faithful Buddhists who have achieved an extremely high state of enlightenment or nirvana. In Theravada Buddhism, arhats are quite wise and self-disciplined monks. In Mahayana Buddhism, however, arhats might be found in any walk of life. A typical requirement for being considered an arhat is that one has eliminated hatred and greed from one’s life. Elimination of hatred and greed indicates the elimination of desire; therefore, the arhat has fulfilled the purpose of the Noble Eightfold Path. Arhats in Buddhism might be compared to gurus in Hinduism or saints in Christianity. According to Buddhism, when arhats die, they are released from the cycle of reincarnation and attain Nirvan.

In Buddhism, another deeply revered figure is the bodhisattva. Bodhisattvas are future Buddhas, souls who have reached an advanced stage of spiritual development and are on the verge of attaining enlightenment. They are destined to become guides for other souls, offering wisdom and compassion to those on the path to Nirvana.  In Mahayana Buddhism, bodhisattvas embody the ideal of selfless benevolence, dedicating themselves to helping faithful Buddhists achieve spiritual liberation. These compassionate beings have chosen to remain on earth, rather than entering Nirvana, to assist others in their spiritual journeys. Through their wisdom, kindness, and guidance, bodhisattvas play a vital role in the spiritual development of Buddhists.  To become a bodhisattva, one must diligently follow the Noble Eightfold Path, cultivating wisdom, ethical conduct, and mental discipline. Bodhisattvas can be male or female, and their path is considered a noble and aspirational goal for Buddhists. By emulating the qualities of bodhisattvas, Buddhists strive to develop their own capacity for compassion, wisdom, and selflessness, ultimately contributing to the betterment of all sentient beings.

Monks are another sacred class of people in Buddhism in general but primarily in Tantric and Theravada Buddhism. Monks live together in monasteries; earn their living through begging; and dedicate their lives to meditation, study, and physical and spiritual exercises. Monks may be of either sex, though most are male. In the monastic life, monks progress toward enlightenment through meditation and the study of Buddhist scriptures.  A community, or association, in Buddhism is known as a Sangha. Within each Sangha, a hierarchy exists in which arhats, bodhisattvas, and monks may interact with ordinary Buddhists on their path toward enlightenment.

In the Tibetan or Tantric Buddhist tradition, lamas are indeed considered high priests and advanced teachers of the Dharma. They are often regarded as a special class of arhats, who are saints of extraordinary holiness and wisdom. The Dalai Lama is the most well-known lama in the West and is the spiritual leader of the Tibetan people.  Lamas play a crucial role in Tibetan Buddhism, serving as spiritual guides, teachers, and mentors. They are responsible for preserving and transmitting the teachings of the Buddha, as well as leading rituals and ceremonies. In addition to their religious roles, lamas may also hold political or civic leadership positions in their communities, particularly in Tibetan society. Finally, it is worth noting that the term “lama” is often used interchangeably with “guru,” which refers to a spiritual teacher or mentor in Tibetan Buddhism. However, not all gurus are lamas, as the term “lama” typically implies a higher level of spiritual attainment and authority

Sacred Places in Buddhism

Anyone can practice Buddhism anywhere; however, some places are considered exceptionally holy. Shrines, which are connected to sacred people or events, are holy places in Buddhism. Shrines are found throughout India and Asia. The earliest type of shrine is the stupa, a burial mound with a relic of Buddha. Beginning in the 2nd century BCE, thousands of stupas were built wherever Buddhism spread. Later, these burial mounds were covered with wooden pagodas. The wooden roofs of the pagodas provided open access to the stupas but protected them against the effects of weather. Later, these pagodas were constructed without stupas and became places of worship as well. Pagodas are often built in scenic gardens and used as sites for meditation.

The most famous shrines today are the Tooth Temple in Sri Lanka and the Shwedagon Pagoda in Burma. The Tooth Temple contains one of Siddhartha Gautama’s teeth, while the Shyway Dragon Pagoda houses eight of Buddha’s hairs.

Monasteries are particularly important in Theravada and Tantric Buddhism. Monasteries are the home of Buddhist monks—where they live and worship in seclusion. These  structures also may house temples. Temples are public places of worship. Many monasteries have temples that are open to the public. Monks, usually male, dedicate their lives to following the Noble Eightfold Path through the monastic ideals of asceticism, self-denial, meditation, and worship. These monasteries and temples are often open to the public and offer education and worship services to their local areas.

Buddhists are not required to make a pilgrimage during their lifetimes. Four places, however, are especially sacred to Buddhists. Buddhists believe that Buddha recommended that his disciples travel to these places. The first of these sacred places is Lumbini, Nepal, the place of Buddha’s birth; second, Bodh Gaya, India, where he received enlightenment; third, Sarnath, India, where he preached his first sermon; and fourth, Kusinara, India, the place of his death.

Sacred Time in Buddhism

Buddhism recognizes several important holy times each year. The New Year is celebrated in April in most Buddhist countries. The celebration typically lasts 3 days and involves washing and cleaning oneself, as well as preparing one’s home for the New Year. Sometimes, people throw water on one another. On the third day, it is customary to visit a temple or monastery and give offerings to the monks. Most Asian countries observe a lunar calendar, and various festivals occur at significant times in the lunar cycle, such as the harvest moon.

Buddha’s birthday is also a significant holy day. In China and Japan, this holiday is observed on April 8. In other parts of Asia, it is celebrated on the last full moon in May. Buddha’s birthday often is celebrated with flowers, fireworks and costumes. The holiday has many names. In India, it is called Tathagata. In Korea, it is known as the Lotus Lantern Festival. In Nepal, it is known as the Day of Enlightenment.

Like Hindus, Buddhists celebrate Ullambana, the festival of the dead. It is believed that the souls of the dead are permitted to wander the earth during this season, which is observed in July or August. Family members leave food offerings for the spirits of the deceased, and priests perform rites to release these souls into Nirvana or into their next incarnation.

Theravada Buddhism has another festival: the robe offering. Each November, worshipers present gifts of robes to the monks at the local monastery. The monks wear these robes for one year, until the next robe offering. This festival celebrates the sending forth of the first Buddhist missionaries throughout the world.

Death and Rebirth in Buddhism

Buddhism teaches that life is a cycle of birth, death and rebirth. All living creatures are subject to this cycle; everyone living has lived before and until Nirvana is attained, will live again.  Buddhism is an offshoot of Hinduism. The belief in reincarnation began in Hinduism and continues in Buddhism. Buddhism differs from Hinduism not so much in its view of what  happens after death, but in its view of the ethical life that leads to Nirvana. Hinduism teaches  that Nirvana is attained through obedience to the Dharma, which is the moral duty of each person. Buddhism teaches that Nirvana is attained through adherence to the Noble Eightfold Path. The figure below illustrates this difference in approach to attaining Nirvana:

As in Hinduism, Buddhism teaches that the moral status of one’s life determines the social status of one’s next life. For example, a faithful Buddhist farmer may be reborn as a monk, thus moving closer to Nirvana. One who has failed to follow the Noble Eightfold Path is reincarnated at a lower level, perhaps even as an animal. Accumulating negative karma moves a person farther from Nirvana, while positive karma brings one closer to Nirvana with each incarnation. It is not clear how quickly a person is reincarnated. With the exception of certain lamas, Buddhists do not have control over the exact nature of their future incarnations. They may simply acquire good karma through adherence to the Noble Eightfold Path and expect that their next incarnation will take them closer to Nirvana.

Buddhist Relationships with Society and State

Unlike some religions, Buddhism does not have a built-in system of government, making it adaptable to various political contexts. It is practiced in countries with diverse political systems, such as Communist China and North Korea, democratic South Korea and Japan, and exile communities in Tibet. Buddhism is also found in extremely poor and undeveloped countries like Burma, as well as in urban centers like Hong Kong. This flexibility stems from Buddhism’s emphasis on detachment from worldly concerns, allowing it to coexist with different forms of civil government.

Buddhism was first introduced to the United States in the 1840s through Chinese immigrants on the west coast. By the late 1840s, Buddhist temples were already being built in San Francisco. Hawaii, which became a US state in 1959, had a Buddhist presence even earlier. Among the various forms of Buddhism, Zen Buddhism gained the most traction in Western culture, thanks in part to the writings of Japanese poet D.T. Suzuki. Zen’s influence extended to the beatnik movement of the 1950s through Jack Kerouac and Allen Ginsberg, and later to the hippie movement of the 1960s and 1970s.

The Vietnam War in the late 1960s and early 1970s brought a significant introduction to Asian religions, including Buddhism, to America. Hundreds of thousands of American soldiers and civilians were exposed to Buddhism in Vietnam and other Asian nations, leading many young people to return as practicing Buddhists. Today, numerous Buddhist societies exist in the United States, with prominent organizations like the Gold Mountain Monastery in San Francisco and the Buddhist Association of the United States in New York providing education, literature, and facilities for Buddhist practice.

In the early 20th century, the rise of Communism led to the suppression of Buddhism in many Asian nations. China’s Cultural Revolution in 1966 saw the destruction and sale of many Buddhist artifacts and books in an attempt to eradicate religion. However, with the decline of Communism, Buddhism has experienced a resurgence in many Asian countries, demonstrating its enduring appeal and adaptability.

Glossary

Agnostic: Pertaining to the belief that the existence of a god is unknown and probably unknowable.

Amitab: In Pure Land Buddhism, a god, or savior, who offers heaven to those who revere him.

Arhat: In Buddhism, a saint; one who is close to achieving Nirvana.

Beatnik: AnAmericanculturalmovementinthe1950s.

Bodhisattva: A soul who will become a Buddha, or blessed one.

Confucianism: A Chinese moral and political system with religions undertones that has had great impact on the history of the Chinese people.

Dalai Lama: The highest Buddhist leader in Tantric (Vajrayana) Buddhism.

Enlightenment: In Buddhism, the experience of truth through meditation and spiritual and physical exercise.

Four Noble Truths: The cornerstones of Buddhist thought—namely, (1) Life includes suffering; (2) Suffering is a result of desire; (3) A lack of desire leads to no suffering; and (4) Desire, and therefore suffering, can be eliminated if one follows the Noble Eightfold Path.

Four Sights: The four people—an old man, a sick man, a dead man, and a holy man—whom Siddhartha Gautama saw, leading to the start of his spiritual journey.

Guru: In Hinduism, a person who guides other people on the path to Nirvana.

Hippie: An American counterculture movement in the 1960s and 1970s.

Koan: In Zen Buddhism, a riddle or question intended to prompt meditation.

Lama: In Vajrayana (Tantric) Buddhism, a high priest or teacher of the Dharma.

Mahayana Buddhism: The most widespread form of Buddhism; a form of Buddhism that offers a path to Nirvana apart from the monastic ideal.

Monastery: A place for living a life of meditation and spiritual exercise.

Monasticism: A lifestyle devoted exclusively to following the Noble Eightfold Path.

Mondo: In Zen Buddhism, a question-and-answer dialogue between a disciple and a teacher.

Monk: A person (usually male) who has dedicated himself to the monastic life.

Nirvana: In Buddhism, freedom from the cycle of reincarnation, which is the ultimate goal in life.

Noble Eightfold Path: Guide to the moral life in Buddhism, consisting of the right view, the right intention, the right speech, the right action, the right livelihood, the right mental effort, the right mindfulness and the right meditation.

Pagoda: A wooden structure used for meditation in many Buddhist cultures.

Polytheistic: Pertaining to the belief in more than one god.

Pure Land sect: A sect of Buddhism that teaches that Nirvana is a land of bliss, and its ruler is a god named Amitab.

Reincarnation: The doctrine of soul transmigration in which each person is born and dies many times in different bodies.

Samsara: The cycle of reincarnation in Buddhism and Hinduism.

Sangha: A community, or association, in Buddhism with a hierarchy among arhats, bodhisattvas and monks.

Satori: In Zen Buddhism, the experience of enlightenment.

Shrine: In Buddhism, a place of worship dedicated to specific individuals or a place that contains relics from Buddha.

Siddhartha Gautama: The birth name of the founder of Buddhism, who would come to be known as Buddha, or “the blessed one.”

Silk Road: A major trade route through China into surrounding nations.

Stupa: A burial mound containing a relic from Buddha that is used for worship and meditation.

Tantric Buddhism: See Vajrayana Buddhism.

Daoism: A Chinese religion that dates back roughly to the time of the origin of Buddhism.

Temple: A building dedicated to Buddhist worship and meditation.

Theravada Buddhism: A strict, monastic form of Buddhism found primarily in Burma, Thailand and Southeast Asia.

Tripitaka: Literally, “three baskets”; a collection of scriptures used in Theravada Buddhism.

Ullambana: In Hinduism and Buddhism, a festival dedicated to the spirits of the dead, who are believed to roam the earth temporarily during the celebration.

Vajrayana Buddhism: Buddhism practiced in Tibet, consisting of Mahayana Buddhism and native Tibetan mystical practices.

Vietnam War: A civil war in Vietnam, in which the United States was involved from 1966 to 1975.

Words of the Dharma: The teachings of Buddha; the Buddhist scriptures.

Yoga: In Buddhism, physical exercises that assist in achieving enlightenment.

Zen Buddhism: A form of Mahayana Buddhism that focuses on attaining enlightenment; the most popular form of Buddhism in the West.