Throughout history, the American food culture has long been an aspect of culture that is highly respected, protected, and interesting to say the least. In this section, the different and unique meats of southern cuisine are discussed and explored as such meats play a key role in shaping Southern Foodways. From unusual meats, the livestock industry of the south, and all the way to the seafood seen throughout southern cooking, there is a wide range of sub-topics to be discussed within this section. Each of the articles described below go into the rich history and details that help make their topics so important to southern cuisine.

Southern Foodways has provided America with many mouth-watering dishes and recipes. A majority of people have a simple understanding, while others are able to understand a deeper meaning connected to certain foods. In Ian Nipper’s article, “Southern Livestock,” the author will be discussing how meat is an essential component of Southern Foodways and how Southern Foodways has impacted the supply-and-demand for livestock in this region. The section will explain how a good portion of southern recipes use a variety of meat such as poultry (Kaminski, et al.  2020) and beef (Mary, et al. 2008). An overview of livestock within the history of Southern Foodways will also be touched upon (Opie, et al. 2008). Afterwards, an insight into the modern methods of raising livestock shall be analyzed as well. This will be accomplished by reviewing the rules and regulations for livestock raising (Cox, et al. 2019), a comparison between the two primary farm types (Pollan 2008, Powell, et al. 2007), and analyzing the other potential effects of caring for, just to mention a few. However, livestock is only one category of meat that has contributed to Southern Foodways. There are others that are discussed throughout this chapter as well.

The work presented in Hunter Christianson’s Literary Analysis seeks to cover how the seafood industry relates to the subculture of Southern Foodways. In regard to the subculture of southern foodways, the controversial aspect of southern cuisine is one of the more memorable pieces along with the rich flavor and taste the food holds. Through the research presented, Christianson discusses the different roles the seafood industry plays in the context of the southern region of the United States. For example, seafood being harvested sustainably and the potential future as a sustainable ingredient in the cuisine, variations of southern food(specifically Cajun and Creole foods), the different environmental, economic, impacts of seafood being a staple food in the southern cuisine, and especially the role terroir plays in southern cuisine as a subculture of the South.

Cai Tippett’s article “Unusual Meats in the American South” explores the history and reasons why Native Americans, colonizers, and African Americans ate unusual meats. Native Americans had a large influence on colonizers that arrived in America. Appalachian, Creole and Cajun cuisines include unusual meat. Unusual meats include wild game, alligators, catfish, chitterlings, crawfish, turtles and even the livermush dish. Different animals were associated with certain geographic regions. Unusual meats are not simply for consumption. These unusual meats have economic and social benefits.  There are several problems related to these unusual meats that are important to consider in the present.

Southern Livestock

By Ian Nipper

Southern Foodways has provided the Americas many mouth-watering dishes and recipes. Some of us only have a vague understanding that we take for granted but others are able to understand the deeper meaning of certain foods. Meat is an essential part of Southern Foodways; a good portion of recipes include the use of some form of meat. Said meat likely comes from various livestock farms scattered throughout the southern region of United States. As stated before, meat is an essential part of Southern foodways, has it affected Southern Foodways in any way? How has Southern Foodways affected the supply-and-demand for livestock in the south? The answer to these questions are what I’m trying to discover through research and analysis. In order to obtain an understanding, it could not hurt to review the history of Southern Foodways in regards to livestock. Afterwards, an insight to modern livestock raising will also be looked upon. This will be achieved through analyzing the rules for raising livestock, comparing and contrasting the two primary farm types and researching the other potential effects of livestock raising, just to name a few.

The primary focus of this research paper is to understand how the introduction of livestock into the South has helped in the formation of Southern Foodways and also, become an integral part of Southern Foodways as well. I begun with a simple question; How has Southern Foodways affected the supply-and-demand for livestock in the south? From this question, the topic opens up a multitude of other questions and sub-categories of topics. These include: the history of livestock in Southern Foodways and how they both interconnect, small-privately owned livestock farms, large-company owned livestock farms, how these two types of livestock farms compare and contrast, how these two types of livestock farms affect each other, what type of livestock is being raised on these farms, the rules and regulations that these farms need to follow in order to care for livestock, how raising livestock can have a devastating impact on the environment, just to name several. From the beginning I had a general idea of which sources (both scholarly and non-scholarly) to find in order to help me with my research paper.

For my research paper, the topic was primarily focused on livestock. For example, both Britannica articles made it apparent that livestock are predominantly domesticated species of animals that are bred and raised on farms. However, these articles also mention that there are specific differences between livestock and poultry. Livestock are mammals such as cattle, pigs, sheep and goats, that are primarily bred and raised for consumption of their meat. There are other types of mammalian livestock that are bred and raised for other purposes (mostly, work-related) such as horses and llamas (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica inc. et al. 2020). Poultry, on the other hand, are a specific type of livestock that are domesticated bird such as chickens, ducks, geese and turkeys. Poultry are bred and raised for meat consumption (Garrigus, 2015).

Aside from the two Britannica articles, I also decided to seek out examples of how two generic types of livestock, in this case cattle and chicken, are utilized in southern recipes throughout Southern Foodways. The best way to research these examples would be to explore southern recipes in which beef and chicken are primary ingredients in the food recipes. While these recipes served the main purpose of acting as generic examples to include in the research paper, they also managed to unexpectedly provide some interesting information. For example, the chicken recipes were mostly recipes that included fried chicken (Kaminski, et al. 2020). As for the recipes that involved cattle meat, they revealed that beef is a primary ingredient in many southern soups and stews (Mary, et al. 2008). It goes to show how many of these recipes rely on meat as a crucial ingredient.

All four of these sources are interconnected and related to each other. They all cover the general information of, “What is Livestock?” They provide some information pertaining to which animals can be considered livestock (i.e. cattle, sheep, pigs, etc.). They also show that livestock can be further divided into sub-categories such as poultry. The articles explain what poultry is and certain examples of poultry as well. The two recipe sources provide some examples of how chicken and cattle are utilized in food recipes common in the Southern Foodways. All together, these sources provide general introductory information pertaining to the topic related to the research paper.

Historical context is another important factor that should be taken into account when discussing the involvement of livestock in Southern Foodways. For some historical context, I looked towards one of our past readings in class (Opie, et al. 2008). While the book primarily focused on the historical content of Southern Foodways, it did mention a few tidbits of information that might be relevant and important to the topic of the research paper. For example, the reading mentions the guinea fowl. The guinea fowl is a type of small bird, native to the continent of Africa, that was brought over to the Americas (along with African slaves). The guinea fowl was bred and raised in the southern portion of the United States and eventually became domesticated. The guinea fowl then became a type of poultry that was eaten in certain dishes of the Southern Foodways. The reading also mentions that the Southern Foodways were influenced by other cultures (i.e. Native American, African, European, etc.). This gave me some insight of where a majority of the Southern Foodways’s livestock initially came from. While some livestock (such as the aforementioned guinea fowl) came from Africa, a majority of these animals (such as horses, cattle, sheep, pigs, goats, etc.) likely came from the European countries. The reading is relevant to the topic of the research paper due to the discussion of the historical content of Southern Foodways and its’ connection to livestock.

I knew that the relevancy of livestock in Southern Foodways was more than just historical context and a general understanding. I knew that there had to be some form of rules or regulations when raising livestock. Two sources managed to shed some light on these regulations and rules pertaining to owning and raising livestock (Cox, et al. 2019 & Agricultural Marketing Service, USDA. 2011). These rules and regulations were put in place by specific organizations and the branch of the government, known as the Department of Agriculture. They cover very important information such as the amount of land that is necessary for keeping livestock, the livestock need to be up-to-date with vaccinations, the livestock need to be fed properly and much more. The relevancy of these sources to the main topic of the research, is that these rules and regulations are country-wide and most likely also pertain to livestock raising in the south. It adds more depth to both livestock raising and Southern Foodways. It shows that livestock raising is not as simple as people believe it is; it is more complex and one needs to understand what to do in order to properly raise livestock.

Another sub-category that I wanted to elaborate more on was a comparison between small, privately-owned livestock farms and larger, company-owned livestock farms. I wanted to understand how these two distinct types of livestock farms differed from each other and possibly, if they had an affect on each other as well. One source contained an interview with Tyler Graham (Powell, et al. 2007). Mr. Graham is an employee of the Graham Land and Cattle Company. A large, livestock company that helps provide cattle meat for many of the states in the Southern U.S. (most notably Texas). The interview provided an example of a large, company-owned livestock farm and lot of information pertaining to these types of farms in general. One word that comes to mind when comparing company-owned farms with small, privately-owned farms is, larger. The amount of land owned is much bigger, the amount of livestock that live on the land is bigger, the amount of food needed to feed the livestock is bigger, etc. In comparison to the smaller, privately-owned livestock farms, everything is downsized but still within regulation to properly raise the livestock. The amount of land (while still big) is smaller, the amount of livestock is smaller, there is a lesser amount of livestock feed (but enough to keep the animals healthy), etc. The reason for this is mostly due to company-owned farms making more money than the smaller farms and are able to afford more material.

With the company-owned Farms having more assets and being more successful than the smaller farms, I felt like this had to have some sort of affect. Another source discussed just how devastating these smaller farms are being affected by the larger companies (Pollan 2008). Smaller farms tend to struggle, not just because of larger companies, but because government regulations make it difficult for the smaller farms to purchase more assets. The regulations make it harder for the small, privately-owned farms to purchase more land to spread, sell crops and livestock to make a profit, etc.

If the raising of livestock has any impact on the environment it would definitely be relevant to the topic of the research. I managed to find a scholarly article that covers this exact topic. Clearing away land in order to raise animals is one effect that livestock farming has on the environment. It puts pressure on wild animals by creating habitat loss and they either have no place to live or come into contact with populated areas, which can be both bad for the wild animals and people. Waste runoff from livestock farms are another environmental impact that was brought up as well. Whenever it rains, animal waste gets drained into water sources and can pollute them. This makes it unsanitary for the animals that live in the water sources and people that also use the water sources. However, one of the biggest environmental impacts of livestock farming is climate change. The article elaborates that many livestock give off greenhouse gases which can have an affect on the global climate. Since the U.S. is one of the major areas in the world in which livestock is raised, it is a great contributor. However, the article does provide some ways that these environmental impacts can be minimized. One solution has already been put in place with the rules and regulation established to limited land use and accidental pollution (Dopelt, et al. 2019). Another proposed solution was that people should cut back their consumption of meat-based products, which will cut back on livestock and reduce the amount of greenhouse gases dispersed into the atmosphere (Dopelt, et al. 2019). The relevancy of these sources to the research paper is to primarily show that there are negative consequences to raising and consuming livestock and that there are potential solutions in order to combat these negative effects on the environment.

How has Southern Foodways affected the supply-and-demand for livestock in the south? Southern Foodways have only increased and revolutionized the south’s supply-and-demand for livestock in various ways; such as adding variety to livestock from other cultures, favoring large company-owned livestock farms, just to name a few. While an increase and renovation in livestock for Southern Foodways may be viewed as something positive, the same sources also support a very different type of conclusion. This outcome depicts the effects (change and increase) of Southern Foodways on livestock as negative. From a morality stand point, utilizing a system in which living organisms (animals) are bred, raised, slaughtered and consumed for the sake of either profit or consumption, is viewed as negative in the eyes of a select group of people. The reasoning for these people to disapprove of these livestock business can correlate to either cultural beliefs or personal views that eating meat is just immoral.

Historical context, which is mostly utilized to show how livestock has evolved alongside Southern Foodways, can also uncover these negative effects as well. Southern Foodways took influence from various cultures from around the world. While a majority of people would see this in a positive light, adding a sense of variety to Southern Foodways, it can also be interpreted as being rather lazy. People were not articulating original concepts of their own; they were only copying those concepts from others. For Southern Foodways (and to an extent livestock) to get where it was now, sacrifices had to be made. People were forcibly taken away from their homes (African slaves), while others were eventually forced to move elsewhere (Native Americans). Some of the livestock that were brought over from other countries were not native to the American south; such as European cattle and African guinea fowl. If they ever managed to escape their captivity, they could have a major impact on the native environment and wildlife.

Government regulations on owning livestock were put in place to make sure an individual or groups of individuals were capable of successfully raising livestock in order to make a profit, without violating any rules. However, these rules and regulations placed by the government are a contributing factor is making it harder for small, privately-owned farms to make a living via livestock. For example, government land regulations make it difficult for the farms to expand or purchase more livestock to raise. Larger, company-owned livestock farms only add more trouble to the smaller farms. Due to the company farms having more access to money, land, livestock, etc, business tends to favor the larger and more successful, while the lesser is unsuccessful and might go out of business.

The impact that raising livestock can have on the environment is another negative effect that should be taken into account. While clearing away uninhabited land makes way for farm land to be used in raising livestock, it takes away the natural habitat of various animals and other organisms. Waste from livestock can also run-off into water systems; polluting and contaminating the water and making it unfit to drink or utilize. However, the biggest negative, environmental impact of livestock is the effect it is having on the Earth’s climate. Greenhouse gasses are expelled by various livestock, which can lead to further environmental complications such as change in climate, change in weather and change in habitat. As the human population increases, so does the supply-and-demand for livestock too. The more livestock there are, the more greenhouse gasses that are placed into the atmosphere. It is basically a domino effect with potential effects that can be devastating.

How has Southern Foodways affected the supply-and-demand for livestock in the south? From the research presented in this piece, Southern Foodways has only increased the supply-and-demand for livestock in the south (and to an extent, the rest of the United States). Livestock has been present in Southern Foodways since the beginning; being a crucial element in the formation of its’ people, culture and food. Livestock was transported from European and African countries so people could have an easily accessible source of meat. As more and more people came to the Americas, they began populate almost every corner of the country and their demand for meat only increased. This increase in human population would eventually lead to the formation of two distinct types of farms; both excelling in raising livestock. They were small-scale, privately owned farms and larger, company-owned farms. Despite the lesser of the two varieties of farms still being present, the farms sustained and owned by companies are the more successful. This is likely due to their connection with corporations, implying that they have more resources such as land, money and other assets. While the small-scale farms are still around, they are struggling mostly due to rules and regulations put in place by the government, which prevents them from expanding and potentially becoming more successful. This increasing demand for meat has also had an environmental impact as well. The more meat we consume, the more livestock that needs to be raised and slaughtered to satisfy our carnivorous appetites. The more livestock that is bred and raised, the more greenhouse gases that are displaced into the planet’s atmosphere; which can have devastating consequences (i.e. climate change). These are the effects that Southern Foodways have placed on the supply-and-demand in the south.

Sources:

Agricultural Marketing Service, USDA. 2011. Agricultural Marketing Service, USDA. Authenticated U.S. Government Information GPO.

Cox, Rebecca J. Nol, Pauline. Ellis, Christine K. Palmer and Mitchell V. et al. 2019. Research with Agricultural Animals and Wildlife. ILAR Journal.

Dopelt, Keren. Radon, Pnina and Davidovitch, Nadav. et al. 2019. Environmental Effects of the Livestock Industry: The Relationship between Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behavior among Students in Insrael. Int J Environ Res Public Health.

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, inc. 2020. Livestock. Encyclopaedia Britannica, inc.

Foreman, Mary. et al. 2008. Beef Recipes. Deep Dish South LLC.

Garrigus, Wesley Patterson. 2015. Poultry Farming. Enyclopaedia Britannica, inc.

Kaminski, Lisa. et al. 2020. 28 Southern Chicken Recipes to Get Your Mouth Watering. Taste of Home.

Opie, Frederick Douglass, et al. 2008. Hog & Hominy. Columbia University Press.

Pollan, Michael. 2008. The Food Issue: Farmer in Chief. The New York Times Magazine.

Bendelle, Marvin and Powell, Lisa. 2007. Southern Barbecue Trail – Texas: Tyler Graham, Graham Enterprises, Graham Land and Cattle Company-Gonzales Texas. Southern Foodways Alliance & American Studies Department The University of Texas at Austin.

Southern Seafood Industry

By Hunter Christianson

The seafood industry in the southern United States has had a long history of diverse foods and cultural aspects. Many southern meals include many different kinds of animal products, produce, and grains as more often than not, some food and cooking resources were the only ones available to different communities, forcing them prepare a meal only with what was available. Otherwise they would starve. This pressure on the southern communities is what forced them to be creative with their ingredients and many would argue that is a large reason southern food is so famous for its taste and rich culture.

For the southern United States, there has been much controversy over the various food industries consumers are often a part of simply because they love an authentic southern meal. Many southern meals, and especially those on the southern coast, include ingredients from the water. Whether that be saltwater or freshwater is up to the culinary artist behind the meal preparation. Having many aquatic ecosystems nearby is very helpful to creating a diverse and unique subculture full of rich and tasty foods, ultimately adding to the deep subcultures found in southern foodways. This piece of writing will explore how the seafood industry in the United States has been changed over time by varying factors, but the main factor being the concept of terroir and local foods unique to the region.

Seafood is known as a very common staple ingredient across multiple cultures and cuisines, that is no different for southern food in The United States of America. From crawfish in swamps of the coastal regions to the rockfish of the Chesapeake Bay, there is a wide variety of options available for seafood delicacies. As with most ingredients, there are many influences on the preparation of these tasty meals in the southern region of the United States. Over time however, issues such as natural disasters, oil spills, and overfishing have cast a negative haze over the popular seafood industry. Despite the negative environmental impact, many organizations are moving towards sustainable practices to slowly revive the longstanding love of seafood in the south. This piece seeks to answer the question: “how has the seafood industry changed in the southern United States?” as it allows for a broader picture and incorporation of both the seafood industry and southern culture as well.

The history of Southern seafood in the United States rich and complex. Michael Wise and Jennifer Wallach talk about the different themes within said strides in the Americas from Native American times to current day through cooking methods in each era of American History in their book The Routledge of History of American Foodways. The different food groups, the recipes, and where food fits into the different themes across the Western Hemisphere is also a field they cover in their book. Nicole F. Smith, Dana Lepofsky, Ginevra Toniello, Keith Holmes, Louie Wilson, Christina M. Neudorf and, Christine Roberts discuss how shellfish on the Northwest coast of the North America are dated back to 3500 years near the shellfish beds in the Pacific Northwest of North America in the article 3500 years of shellfish mariculture on the Northwest Coast of North America. This allows both groups of authors to share the ultimate goal of discussing the evolution of seafood over time. Their goal is showcased in 3500 years of shellfish mariculture on the Northwest Coast of North America when the scientists learned that “of the nine clam gardens sampled and dated in Kanish and Waiatt Bays, seven sites represent Form 1 clam gardens on soft sediment beaches…while two represent Form 3 gardens on previously steep and eroding shorelines”(3500 years of shellfish mariculture on the Northwest Coast of North America (Smith et al. 2019). The shared goal is also seen through the methods of discussion in The Routledge of History of American Foodways as a significant amount of themes and correlations between American foods and the history of Americas can be observed and understood (Wise and Wallach 2016). The two sets of authors highlight the evolution of seafood in the western hemisphere through different lights with the same ultimate goal.

Falling under the same category of origin like the two pervious sources, Jane Black’s The Geography of Flavor goes into detail about the idea of ‘terroir’, a French term that literally means “terrain”, but in this case, is referring to location based food (Black 2007). She discusses different foods and methods of creating or discovering a food that is unique to a certain region of the country, showing how valuable location-based food is and what they bring to the culinary world. This is crucial as “U.S. advocates of terroir hope to use certification marks to help define regional foods” for the future of location-based food in the United States (Black 2007). As time goes on, it is likely this trend will catch on because people will realize the value in terroir foods. Terroir plays a significant role in reflecting the culture of a region as it shows how a community makes the most of the resources they are given within their region. Terroir in the United States has been seen in the southern cuisine foodways as much of the southern food can only be found in the southern portion of the United States, showing how important seafood is to the southern region of the U.S..

Taking into account the more modern form of seafood harvest, Carlos M. Duarte, Nùria Marbá, and Marianne Holmer go into the domestication of wild aquaculture in their article Rapid Domestication of Marine Species, touching on the sustainability aspect of seafood. The authors discuss the different data sets and percentages of the land and aquatic species that have been domesticated and how they compare on the global scale as “97% of the aquatic species presently in culture have been domesticated since the start of the 20th century, and an estimated 106 aquatic species have been domesticated over the past decade” (Duarte, Marbá, and Holmer 2007). Aquaculture cultivation is very prominent throughout the seafood industry and will continue to grow in popularity every year. The fact that aquaculture domestication is as popular as it is and is growing in such popularity suggests that there is demand for such domestication and if there is demand there is consumption and where there is consumption there is growth. With such high demand for seafood in the south for southern cooking, the correlation between southern foodways and the increase in aquaculture is clear and shows the effects of seafood in the United States.

Environmental impacts on seafood in the southern United States can stem from multiple sources. Meg Major discusses the impacts of Hurricane Katrina on the Gulf Coast in her piece Boston’s Hurricane Alley. She also talks about what efforts can be made to help get the industry back on track. On a more detailed level, “the manmade infrastructure losses are estimated to be $330 million across the Gulf, not counting the hundreds of millions of dollars more in natural losses of wetlands, reefs, and oyster beds”(Major 2006). David Muller discusses how crude oil leaking into the Gulf Coast is seriously affecting the seafood industry in his article Oil Spill is Latest Hurdle for Louisiana Seafood Industry. The effects of the oil leak in the gulf are outlined in reference to the markets specifically affected by the spill as the unique markets that were affected most at the time of the leak are oysters and shrimp(Muller 2010). Both Major and Muller set out to display what the different environmental impacts are when unexpected events happen and how they affect the seafood industry of the southern region of the United States.

Being a more anthropogenic cause rather than the natural causes mentioned by Major’s article, The World Wildlife Fund discusses how fishing has had a large impact in bringing down the overall aquatic wildlife populations. More specifically, the article discusses the concept of overfishing and bycatch and its impacts on the oceanic environment as overfishing and bycatch are “serious marine threat[s] that causes the needless loss of billions of fish, along with hundreds of thousands of sea turtles and cetaceans” (World Wildlife Fund Staff 2020). The WWF “influences the global market, attempts to end illegal fishing, address subsidies, and expand marine protected areas” (World Wildlife Fund Staff 2020). Knowing the effects of overfishing and bycatch, world leaders and organizations like WWF are more suited and prepared to help get the fishing industry on a more sustainable and eco-friendlier track. The seafood industry has a had a large impact on the south and could largely change the way the south promotes and consumes seafood if overall aquatic wildlife populations continue to drop.

The seafood industry in the Southern region of the U.S. very well could be on a more sustainable track than the past records of seafood industries. The National Aquaculture Sector Overview discusses the characteristics, operations, marketing, and trends and research seen in the aquaculture world within the United States. The overview breaks up each section of U.S. aquaculture into 3 corresponding parts, explained as “primary issues for expansion of the finfish sector are availability of freshwater resources, competition with imported products, and a supportive regulatory process for marine aquaculture. Significant continued expansion in the shellfish sector will be constrained by suitable nearshore locations, user group conflicts, and water quality issues” (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2011). To support the sustainability tract like National Aquaculture Sector Overview, NOAA Fisheries produced two reports revealing nation’s progress in sustainably managing marine resources. The report addresses the strides and the restocks established in the saltwater fisheries in the U.S., stating that “In 2016, U.S. fisheries continued to rebuild, with the number of stocks on the overfishing and overfished lists remaining near all-time lows”(U.S. fishing generated more than $200B in sales in 2015, two stocks rebuilt in 2016 (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Staff, 2017). Both The National Aquaculture Sector Overview and NOAA Fisheries show the audience how the sustainability factor of seafood industry could play a significant role in the future of seafood commerce.

The cultural side of southern cuisine is just as important as the historical side of it. Mary McGrath discusses the impact the creole options at a Seafood and Chicken establishment called Commander’s Palace had on a Canadian Journalist in her piece Creole Seafood’s a Hit. Jenny Turknett discusses how a Louisiana native in Acworth, Georgia brings a Cajun lifestyle to his dining establishment through his décor and food so that those living nearby and not in Louisiana can have a taste of authentic Cajun food in her article Cajun Seafood Works Its Charm. Turknett goes into detail about how the food is spicy and brings much heat to the taste but does not offer much flavor. McGrath examines the diversity of the menu in the creole dishes such as “Prudhomme specialty called Blackened Redfish, scallops, tasty coconut beer shrimp, coleslaw, and two boiled potatoes” and “the seasoned fish (kingfish that night), fried over very high heat, breaded scallops and moist, tender shrimp in a crisp beer batter with coconut”(McGrath 1987). While McGrath takes a look at the diversity of creole foods, Turknett takes a more critical approach to Cajun food created by a native Cajun in her piece. Turknett goes into detail about how the food is spicy and brings much heat to the taste but does not offer much flavor. On a more critical level, Turknett shows that “Missing are the layered flavors needed to give these classics their soul-satisfying richness” and “a Cajun cream sauce dominates the flavor, conquers the crispiness of the delicately fried seafood and sits like a lump in your belly”(Turknett 2010). The roles of diversity and authenticity seen in the creole and Cajun foods are key to understanding them as a part of the southern seafood industry known today in the United States.

With seafood being a crucial part of food in the southern region of the United States, it is key to understand how the southern foodways known and loved today came to be and where they may end up in the future as the future of seafood in America depends on it. Southern Foodways has made its mark in the history of the United States and will continue to play a key role in how the country is shaped physically and culturally.

Over the past two hundred years, there has been considerable change to the seafood industry in the southern United States of America. There are several factors that led to this change, but the main factor is the concept of terroir and local foods. The more south one travels, the higher amount and level of true southern food he or she will find due to the concept of location-based food in the south. While terroir is the main component that affects the seafood industry in the southern region of the United States, it is not the only component.

Terroir by itself contributes much to how the seafood industry has changed in the southern region of the United States. The demand for locally grown food has created a southern terroir. The different creations of the foods only available in the south are results of the circumstances presented to those who created the different location-based food. Circumstances such as having to grow or gather your own produce, find your own animal products for protein, or shop only on the clearance rack at the grocery store because it is all you can afford are the circumstances some were placed in that forced them to create the foods they did. Many different terroirs are the results of the different terrains seen throughout the south because as the literal French translation, ‘terroir’ means “terrain”(Black 2007). Over the years people have recognized what terroir is and how important it is in the culinary community. As people have this realization, they start to understand more how “foods and wine express the soil, climate, culture and tradition of a region” (Black 2007). Many Americans understand the difference between locally grown produce and produce grown on a mass scale or in a lab, either of which are often owned by a larger corporation. However, people understand terroirs significance because “farmers and manufacturers” have learned how “to sell food based not on price, but on where it comes from and how it is grown”(Black 2007). As more people start to understand where food comes from and the significance of its origin, the more likely they are to support the existence of a southern terroir.

With a higher demand for locally sourced foods, an increase in several of the other factors that go into seafood production for the southern United States is seen. Arlin Wasserman, a culinary consultant in Minneapolis launched his firm Changing Tastes in 2004. He “has a growing roster of clients” such as “General Mills…, a co-op of Amish goat and lamb farmers…, a group of Minnesota artisans with a line of charcuterie”, and “preserves and wild rice dishes” and many other “projects are taking shape across the country”(Black 2007). General Mills is a very large corporation and has many different lines of cereals out for consumption in many different countries. If their use and preservation of terroir foods grows and reaches the general consumer, said consumer will likely recognize the change in ingredients in his or her food, ultimately allowing him or her to understand the significance of location-based food and how various foods only available in the south are significant to the culinary world.

Throughout the south, there are many different staple foods that are key ingredients that help terroir foods prove their significance to southern foodways. Foods such as giant bullfrogs, alligator meats, okra, collard greens, crawfish, cobia, and wahoo are just some of the foods generally only found in the southern region as the south is often the only place such meats, produce, and grains can be found.

In terms of economic potential for terroir, the concept may have a future. Some economic professionals “see terroir as a device to help” rebuild and preserve “rural communities” and a study showed that “56 percent of respondents were willing to pay at least 10 percent more for a place-based food”(Black 2007). That same study also discovered that “65 percent of respondents preferred products that would give farmers a higher percentage of profits than processors, distributors and retailers”(Black 2007). Terroir has potential to significantly alter the future of the culinary world because it could help people comprehend the significance of location-based foods as it has in the past.

Terroir in the United States is one of the most substantially effective factor that influences how the seafood industry plays out in the southern region of the U.S. Throughout history, terroir has been mainly a French and in some cases a European concept but the increase in consumption of location-based food and locally grown food in the U.S. has argued differently as it has brought to light how important it is to the culinary subculture of the southern United States. While many of the other factors involved with southern foodways affect the seafood industry in the south, terroir has the most impact seen today.

Throughout history, southern food has had many different contributions from many different cultures and culinary subcultures that have impacted the seafood industry in the southern United States. In more recent and modern years and as this piece exhibits, substantial change has been observed from the seafood industry within the southern region of the United States. Although various factors have led to this change, only one main factor has been the ultimate driving force behind said change. This single factor has been the concept of terroir and locally sourced foods being included in recipes across the region. The research and analysis presented allows readers to genuinely think about where their food comes from and how it is harvested next time he or she eats a meal of southern origin. As terroir and locally sourced food comes into play, consumers will understand the significance of terroir and how important keeping uniquely grown foods in their diet as it contributes to the unique culture of southern foodways. For the future, further research topics include but are not limited to how the cattle industry has changed over time and how that change affected southern cooking, how freedom movements and strides in civil rights altered southern cooking through the Union’s defeat over the Confederacy, how the industrialization of the south ties into southern foodways, and the correlation between the unique food preparation methods and poverty in the south.

Bibliography

Black, Jane. 2007. “The Geography of Flavor; Bringing a European Idea Down to Earth: Producers, Farmers Pin Hopes on the Appeal of ‘Terroir.’” The Washington Post, August 22, 2007.

Duarte, Carlos M., Nùria Marbá, and Marianne Holmer. 2007. “Rapid Domestication of Marine Species.” Science (American Association for the Advancement of Science) 316 (5823): 382–83.

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2011. “National Aquaculture Sector Overview Fact Sheets.” National Aquaculture Sector Overview. 2011. http://www.fao.org/fishery/countrysector/naso_usa/en.

Major, Meg. 2006. “Boston’s ‘Hurricane Alley.’” Progressive Grocer 85 (4): 86.

McGrath, Mary. 1987. “Creole Seafood’s a Hit.” Toronto Star, August 4, 1987.

Muller, David. 2010. “Oil Spill Is Latest Hurdle for Louisiana Seafood Industry.” New Orleans Citibusiness, April 28, 2010.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Staff. 2017. “U.S. Fishing Generated More than $200B in Sales in 2015, Two Stocks Rebuilt in 2016.” National Oceanic and Atmopheric Administration. May 9, 2017. https://www.noaa.gov/media-release/us-fishing-generated-more-than-200b-in-sales-in-2015-two-stocks-rebuilt-in-2016#:~:text=Two%20additional%20stocks%20%E2%80%94%20barndoor%20skate,rebuilt%20since%202000%20to%2041.

Smith, Nicole F., Dana Lepofsky, Ginevra Toniello, Keith Holmes, Louie Wilson, Christina M. Neudorf, Christine Roberts, and Michael D. Petraglia. 2019. “3500 Years of Shellfish Mariculture on the Northwest Coast of North America.” Public Library of Science (PLoS) 14 (2).

Turknett, Jenny. 2010. “Cajun Seafood Works Its Charm; Henry’s Is Popular and Fun, but Most Dishes Are Just Heavy and Hot, Not Layered with Flavor.” The Atlanta Journal-Constitution, October 22, 2010.

Wise, Michael D, and Jennifer Jensen Wallach. 2016. The Routledge History of American Foodways.

World Wildlife Fund Staff. 2020. “Overfishing.” World Wildlife Fund. 2020. https://www.worldwildlife.org/threats/overfishing.

Unusual Meats in the American South

By Cai Tippett

Introduction

The first hunters in America were the Native Americans. Colonizers came to America and took over Native American hunting grounds. Native Americans were the first people to eat all sorts of unusual animals. Unusual includes animals that are not usually available in grocery stores. Some weird animals or animal-derived foods include livermush, chitlin, gators, coons, crawdads, (crawfish) and more. Unusual meats have a rich history in the American South. There were many ways that these unusual meats were prepared and hunted. Colonizers had to adapt to their new surroundings in North America. African Americans ate certain foods and it shaped their identities. African Americans brought food traditions that later led to soul food. Appalachian, Creole and Cajun cuisines also include unusual meat. These unusual meats have cultural and economic significance. It is important to consider the future of Southern unusual meats. Southerners ate unusual meats because of their availability, to feed themselves and for their economic benefits.

Analysis of Literature

A wide variety of unusual meats were available. Native Americans went after pigeon roosts during the very early years (Hilliard 2014, 70). Hilliard (2014) explains that habitat destruction harmed bears, bobcats, wolves, and mountain lions (Hilliard 2014, 63). The deer, racoons, opossums, rabbits, squirrels, quail and doves were thriving (Hilliard 2014, 63). For many hunters, raccoons and opossums were not only important for their meat but also for their hide (Edge 2014, 172). Poor southern blacks and whites hunted the opossum for its fur and flesh (Melosi 2007, 258). Edge states that raccoons faced constant hunting pressure in the rural South that reached its peak because of higher fur prices in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The bobwhite quails have been hunted and trapped to sell as part of their agricultural production (Edge 2014, 259).  The quail is associated with the Deep South and became its traditional game bird (Hilliard 2014, 70). Edge argues that bobwhite quails have always been in demand. The high demand of bobwhite quails decimated the population with few existing today.

Some animals were easier to hunt than others. The opossum was easier because there were more of them, they were relatively slow,  and they could be more easily be hunted without guns (Hilliard 2014, 68). Sometimes snakes, alligators, frogs, turtles and terrapins served as meals for southerners (Hilliard 2014, 74). The strange foods Southerners ate changed throughout history.

Black bears are one of the rarer meats in the South hunted for consumption and because bears were a nuisance. The Native Americans also used to eat black bears (Sawyer 2010, 33). In the middle of the 19th century, black bears disappeared from the coastal plain area from Georgia to Maine (Sawyer 2010, 33). The Albemarle region surprisingly was able to not diminish the black bear population. Black bears have been hunted and eaten by settlers in the Albemarle region for over three hundred years (Sawyer 2010, 33). In Tennessee, there was a different situation with bear hunting.  Davy Crockett hunted bears to feed his family and neighbors and to stop bears from killing animals and stealing food (Schullery 1988). Also, Davy Crockett often hunted bears for sport, demonstrating how much bear hunting was available (Schullery 1988). During the Creek Wars the troops ate bear (1988). It appears that black bears were hunted because there was not enough food at the time.

Eating turtles began as a form of sustenance but later had economic benefits. Earlier indigenous people of the Gulf Coast and the Caribbean islands ate turtle eggs, either the eggs or its meat or both (Tucker 2009, 88). Historically, turtles were an important food source for sailors and pirates (Tucker 2004, 91). Also, Catholics could eat turtle meat during Lent, but Jews could not (Tucker 2009, 89). Turtle soup is now dependent on fresh-water turtles because the marine turtle has been hunted to the point of becoming endangered (Tucker 2009, 88). Waverly Root says that some thought eating turtle meat before battle would protect them from injury (Tucker 2009, 88). The word terrapin came from the Algonquin language, showing that fresh and brackish water turtles was a common food for these people (Sawyer 2010, 99). This was one of the unusual meats that had a Native American origin. The aquatic snapping turtle was a major food source for villages in the coastal plain, but not very much from the coastal plain to the piedmont (Sawyer 2010, 99). For decades the Roanoke colonists used terrapins for eating (Sawyer 2010, 100). Terrapins became very economically beneficial to North Carolina and by 1880, the state had become the 2nd largest exporter of diamondback terrapins in the United States (Sawyer 2010, 101). Clearly there was a large demand for turtles from North Carolina.

The arrival of settlers was harmful for the animal population. Edge says that pioneers ate smaller game such as squirrels, racoons and opossums (Edge 2014, 25). Appalachian foodways were influenced by Native Americans (Edge 2014, 41). Native Americans were a large influence on colonizers. Native Americans were the first to eat crawfish (Edge 2014, 181). Native Americans in the South liked stewing meat with vegetables, such as deer, squirrel and raccoon (Edge 2014, 79). It is possible that Native Americans influenced how Southerners prepared their meat. Southerners usually prepare mammals like raccoons, opossums, muskrats, nutrias or beavers by parboiling to eliminate any leftover musk or unpleasant-tasting fat (Edge 2014, 79).

Another popular animal Southerners ate was squirrel, solely for eating. The large red and black fox squirrels and the tinier gray squirrels were the traditional bases for game stews (Edge 2014, 79). Crawfish (also known as crawdads or crayfish) is now an important part of Cajun cuisine but only had a small role in the local diet up to the mid-twentieth century (Edge 2014, 58). Edge (2014) states that crawfish was viewed as poor man’s food. Edge argues that crawfish became a major part of Cajun cuisine because southern Louisiana’s economic, educational and transportation systems improved. This created a whole new appetite for crawfish.

Catfish were eaten because they were readily available. Catfish will eat almost anything (Edge 2014, 160). The fact that they would eat almost anything made them easier to catch. Catfish were easier to catch with a variety of devices (Hilliard 2014, 72). Hilliard and Edge’s statements support each other that fishing for catfish was not hard. Catfish in Appalachia were caught with “electronic fish finders” (Sohn 2005, 120). They were first captured by Native Americans then Americans of African and European descent (Edge 2014, 160). Once a catfish has been caught it has to be skinned (Edge 2014, 160). Edge (2014) says that in the South there are two ways catfish is prepared, breaded in cornmeal or fried in hot grease in an iron skillet. Catfish are seen as a legacy of the old days (Melosi 2007, 2005). This might have meant that the old days were better because of their simplicity. Edge (2014) stated that about half of the nation’s catfish are grown in the Delta. The catfish industry was economically beneficial, but catfish farming was not easy.

Native Americans had a large influence Appalachian foodways and colonizers. Sohn (2005) stated that about 10,000 years ago, native Appalachians in the South ate bear, elk, white-tailed deer, turkeys, squirrels and raccoons. European explorers learned quickly from Native Americans how to hunt and use wild game (Sohn 2005, 118). Hunters consume enough calories from hunting large game (Sohn 2005, 118). Once small communities formed, they combined wild and domestic meats in their diets (Sohn 2005, 118). Beginning in the 18th century, large game such as buffalo, black bear, elk, white-tailed deer, feral hogs, and in northern Appalachia, moose were considered a delicacy to the inhabitants (Sohn 2005, 118). The geography of Appalachia influenced what Appalachians ate. The Appalachian method of hunting bears seems unique. Hunters lured the bear with food into a big pit and when the bear got too close, logs would fall and prevent the bear from moving (Sohn 2005, 118). Hunters divided the meat and tender parts, steaks and hams were most valued (Sohn 2005, 118). Sohn argues that Appalachian food today reflects national worries for the environment and being healthy.

Buffaloes and elk were too heavy to carry, so there would be pieces of leftover carcasses in the woods (Sohn 2005, 118). Appalachians also liked to hunt small game and fish, including the bobcat, fox, wild turkey, quail, dove, raccoon, possum, ground hog, rabbit, squirrel and trout (Sohn 2005, 118). Using dogs to hunt racoons (coon hunting) is a special and popular sport in the southern mountains from Mississippi to West Virginia (Sohn 2005, 119). Raccoons are valued for their meat and skin (Sohn 2005, 119). Opossums were hunted for their fur and flesh (Melosi 2007, 258). Both raccoons and opossums were valued for the same reasons. The opossum has been a prominent contemporary southerner (Melosi 2007, 258). This indicates that opossum is important in the modern day.

The reason Americans ate livermush was that it was brought to America from Germany and passed down. Livermush is a loaf made of pork liver and cornmeal boiled together, set, then sliced and usually fried, preferably in lard or bacon grease (Deutsch 2018, 203). Other scraps of pork and head parts might be added to it (Deutsch 2018, 203). The spices used are usually salt, pepper and sage (Deutsch 2018, 203). Calves’ liver sometimes replaces or is an addition to the pork liver. It tends to appear primarily in central and western North Carolina (Deutsch 2018, 203). Few Southerners outside the southern Appalachian Mountains and the Piedmont area of North Carolina have eaten livermush (Deutsch 2018, 203). This dish is highly localized for this region. The origin of livermush seems to be German immigrants (Deutsch 2018, 203). Livermush is one of the foods that had a European influence.

Chitlins, also called chitterlings became a part of African American diets because rural, poor Southerners needed to use every piece of food (Edge 2014, 166). Chitterlings are a key part of Southern food. Chitterlings are the small intestines of hogs, cooked in batter (Edge 2014, 166). Edge emphasizes the economic problems poor Southern African Americans had. Edge states that white, rural southerners from the 20th century appreciated chitterlings as a cultural symbol and nourishment. These white, rural Southerners did not have to face the same stigma as African Americans. The white Southerners did not approve of viscera (Edge 2014, 166). Witt goes more into the deeper symbolic meaning of chitterlings than Edge does. Witt says that soul food is about the continuous debate about the appropriate food “practices” of blackness (Witt 2004, 80). The meaning of chitterlings can limit African Americans. Chitterlings may represent that other identities are “filthy” not because they are a threat to social order, but they may menace from inside (Witt 2004, 86). Witt seems to be suggesting ‘you are what you eat’ and that eating chitterlings is undesirable. The black bourgeoisie attempted to force chiltlins to be associated with black working class and poor (Witt 2004, 88). Witt (2004) argues that white patrons of soul food were trying to put up racial boundaries between blacks and whites via chitlins. White patrons were choosing what they liked about African Americans.

In Florida, alligators were a popular food to eat and provided a way that alligator hunters could earn money. Alligator was not only hunted for meat but also for their skins. Alligator hunting was one of the most reliable sources of income for glades people.  Alligators could be hunted year-round but other game animals were seasonal (Ogden 2011, 440). Ogden suggest that alligators have many qualities that make them more challenging to hunt including their agility and speed. Gladesmen settled in southern Florida in the 19th century and provided for themselves through commercial and subsistence hunting and fishing and also small-scale farming (Ogden 2011, 2). Ogden (2014) states that gladesmen were generally poor, rural whites. Seminoles also hunted alligators, and also sold their hides (Ogden 2011, 10). Ogden (2011) states that pole-hunting describes hunting alligators from their underground dens during the day. Fire-hunting describes hunting alligators at night in bigger waterways (Ogden 2011, 48). Iron rods called gator rods were used to search alligator dens. Alligator hunters were trying to agitate the alligators enough so they would come out of the alligator holes. The process of capturing an alligator was very strenuous.

These unusual meats are still eaten today. Today, bear hunting continues to be popular in the Albemarle peninsula, but it is now in the jurisdiction of the state wildlife management which requires a license (Sawyer 2010, 34). The black bear population in Appalachia has grown (Sohn 2005, 121). Overhunting could be a problem for several animals in the future. Quail growers are scattered across the South today (Edge 2014, 260). Alligator snapping turtles and common snapping turtles from the eastern half of the United States now supply most of the meat for the commercial market in Louisiana (Tucker 2009, 88). Turtles are not cheap to this day (Tucker 2009, 94). Edge states that hunters rarely kill and eat possums today. Today, certain groceries and fish markets still carry raccoons and opossums in season (Edge 2014, 172). Edge (2014) states that the bobwhite quail is rare today in the South and that there are still quail growers. Edge (2014) argues that catfish has become a more popular purchase in supermarkets across the United States. Ogden argues that few alligators were saved by criminalizing alligator hunting. Ogden (2011) states that Florida has ended up using alligators as a tourist attraction. Sea turtle trade ended in 1971 because the Endangered Species Act was passed (Sawyer 2010, 92). Sawyer (2010) states that some turtles that replaced sea turtles include alligator and common snapping turtles, diamondback terrapins, red ears, and soft shells. Turtles have also been imported from Chinese markets that prefer the turtles live (Sawyer 2010, 92). The alternatives to sea turtle were limited. The future of consuming peculiar meats is uncertain.

Discussion

History had a clear influence on the procuring and consumption of strange meat. The American South has had a controversial past. Colonizers learned about hunting from Native Americans. Colonizers had hunted too much, so certain foods became rare or disappeared altogether. Some of the unusual meat was brought over from another culture. Certain regions in the South had more variety of different meats. Certain foods had special meaning to Southerners. Sometimes these meats were just simply a necessity to feed oneself. Chitterlings was an important food that African Americans had to survive on. Chitterlings showed the financial burden of poor Southerners. Chitterlings can put blacks into an undesirable category because they are not seen as suitable/desirable. It was odd how certain white patrons liked chitlins, but they did not have to deal with the negative associations associated with chitlins that African Americans did. Chitlins were one of the rare unusual meats that also highlighted social and economic issues.

The important unusual meats include alligators, catfish, crawfish, raccoons, bears, turtles, squirrels and chitterlings. Certain foods were economically beneficial such as alligators, opossums and turtles. In the case of alligators and raccoons, they could be used for more than just food. A big problem for unusual meats might be overhunting. Several of these unusual meats are still in high demand. These meats had special preparation and that food preparation was passed down as a tradition. Certain foods became more popular as people became more creative with new dishes and people became intrigued by the creativity. Several meats had different hunting methods. Specific parts of the meat were used. Certain animals were hunted based on their season and some were even location-based. The location-based animals seem to have a deeper history associated with them.

It is important to consider the influence Native Americans had on colonizers. Native Americans made moccasins and hats but then they became a symbol of the frontier (Sohn 2005, 119). But the relationship between the colonizers and Natives was not harmonious. Colonizers took Native lands and overhunted. Natives hunting had meaning beyond being a form of sustenance or revenue. It is important that they get food sovereignty back. Many of these meats have economic, cultural and historical meaning. Colonizers did not assign special meaning to meat in the beginning, as they were trying to survive. There was so much variety in the what strange meats were eaten. Some animals became endangered because the colonizers overhunted. Some foods even have to be supplied from somewhere else. The industries related to these meats seem to put a lot of effort into keeping up the constant supply. Meat is important to the American South because certain meat has special meaning to Southerners. The commodification of these animals is questionable. Alligators have been used for meat and leather goods, but also for obscure purposes (Ogden 2011, 127). This calls into question whether these animals should be hunted down. Certain animals have to be protected because of being endangered. It is important to consider the racial, social and economic issues influencing the South. Certain voices have been left out of these histories or not recorded. Traditions have changed to adapt to modern days. Food has brought people together. 40,000 members with bumper stickers saying “Eat More Possum” go to annual gatherings (Melosi 2007, 258). The consumption and sale of unusual meat is still prevalent.

Conclusion    

Southerners ate unusual meats based on their readiness, to sustain themselves and for their economic benefits. History has changed the significance and meaning of the unusual meats (socially and economically). Native Americans had a large influence on what colonizers ate. Alligators, catfish, crawfish, raccoons, bears, turtles, and squirrels were eaten for their meat. Alligators, turtles and opossums were examples of animals that were key to earning money. Livermush was one of the few examples of a tradition that was passed down from those that immigrated. Besides eating black bears, they were also seen as a threat to humans. Bear hunting still continues in the Albemarle peninsula. Catfish were popular because of how easy it was to catch them. Chitlins provided sustenance for poor Southerners, but also made African Americans seem undesirable. Additional research needed on unusual meats must address how the supply, sale and consumption of unusual meats has changed because of COVID-19.

Bibliography

Deutsch, John. 2018. We Eat What? A Cultural Encyclopedia of Unusual Foods in the United States. CA: ABC-CLIO

Edge, John. 2014. The New Encyclopedia of Southern Culture: Foodways. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press

Hilliard, Sam Bowers. 2014. Hog Meat and Hoecake: Food Supply in the Old South, 1840-1860. Athens: University of Georgia Press

Melosi, Martin. 2007. The New Encyclopedia of Southern Culture: Environment. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press

Ogden, Laura A. 2011. Swamplife: People, Gators, and Mangroves Entangled in the Everglades. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press

Sawyer, Roy T. 2010. America’s Wetland: An Environmental and Cultural History of Tidewater Virginia and North Carolina. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press

Schullery, Paul. 1988. The Bear Hunter’s Century. United States: Stackpole Books

Sohn, Mark F. 2005. Appalachian Home Cooking: History, Culture, and Recipes. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky

Tucker, Susan. 2009. New Orleans Cuisine: Fourteen Signature Dishes and Their Histories. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi

Witt, Doris. 2004. Black Hunger: Soul Food and America. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press