Food acts as a common denominator for the South’s modern, diverse population, holding the power to create regional unification and identity. Industrialization, mass consumerism, and immigration transformed Southern foodways, which is evident through the rise of fast food and fusion cuisine. There is a sense of pride within southern communities and the cuisine making up the history, culture,  and regional identity.  The modern, or “New,” South still struggles with memories of its segregated and poverty-ridden past. Although there is a push for inclusivity and to move past this dark history, the New South continues to romanticize and preserve the antebellum period, perpetuating racial difference and white superiority (Ferris 2014). This chapter examines the modern South’s efforts to use food to promote unity, regional identity, and southern culture across regional and national boundaries (Kelting 366). Despite these efforts, the region continues to discriminate against marginalized groups by ignoring their contributions to Southern foodways.

Beth Devine’s article, “Soul Food’s Past, Present, and Future Cultural Significance” investigates “soul food,” a term that refers to foods that are traditionally prepared and eaten by Southern African Americans. This article analyzes soul food’s complicated history, the interpreted differences between soul food and “Southern food,” opposing opinions towards the cuisine within and outside of the African American community, and the appropriation of soul food by white America. Soul food is a cultural phenomenon that was created during the Civil Rights Movement as an expression of Black identity. Analysis of current perceptions of soul food within and without the African American, the increasing gentrification of black-owned businesses and soul food restaurants, and the commodification of soul food without accreditation by white America demonstrates soul food’s dwindling relevance. Because the cuisine is losing its blackness, soul food and Southern food are becoming interchangeable.  In an effort to modernize and preserve soul food’s connection to the black community, some Black chefs are embracing vegan soul food, since it is a return to the cuisine’s healthier, West African roots.

Iisak Kukkastenvehmas-Skiggs’s article “Southern Terroir’s history, perceptions, and development” looks at the Terroir in the south. This term translates to “the taste of place.” The role that Terroir plays within communities in the south. This article investigates the different opportunities to grow the industry and the consequences that it will bring to communities. The term terroir originates from France to define the relationship between land, people, and culture. The south’s identity is closely related to its land, people, and food culture. Many dishes in the south are rooted in southern history. Many of these traditional dishes have qualities that could be related to Terroir. The effort to use Terroir to boost economic, cultural, and societal status.

Megan Carney’s article, “How has Southern Identity been incorporated into the Chick-fil-A story?” analyzes the story of Chick-fil-A capitzaling on the notion of Southern identity particularly through a focus of Christian theology, hospitality, and fried chicken. While religion and business don’t usually mix well, Chick-fil-A founder S. Truett Cathy incorporated Christian values into his company, such as being closed on Sunday to take a sabbath, which is a Christian practice. Although some do not agree with Chick-fil-A’s beliefs, such as not favoring gay-marraige, the business has not stopped growing according to statistics. A reason why people are still supporting the business is due to Chick-fil-A’s treatment towards its customers. Through its hospitality, specifically through being kind and saying “my pleasure,” people are also drawn in by the food, specifically the fried chicken sandwiches. Fried chicken is a common Southern food and has been historically, but it has also been an accessory to an ugly stereotype towards the African American community. Chick-fil-A may not acknowledge this aspect due to it being founded by a white man.

References

Ferris, Marcie. 2014. The Edible South: The Power of Food and the Making of an American Region. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press

Kelting, Lily. 2016. “The Entanglement of Nostalgia and Utopia in Contemporary Southern Food Cookbooks” Food, Culture, & Society 19, no. 2 (June): 361-387.

Soul Food’s Past, Present, and Future Cultural Significance

By Beth Devine

The culinary tradition known as “soul food” has been celebrated for decades as part of African American culture. It is a term that is often used to refer to foods that are traditionally prepared and eaten by African Americans in the Southern United States. Although the dishes are similar, many argue that soul food is different than the umbrella term “Southern food.” The biggest difference between the different labels is that soul food is associated with African Americans and Southern food is often associated with white Southerners. These racially coded terms exemplify the region’s divided, complicated past.

This study will analyze the history and various definitions of soul food, the interpretated differences between soul food and Southern food, the contrasting opinions about soul food within the African American community, the gentrification and commodification of soul food by white America, and the current efforts to modernize and preserve soul food. Soul food is often demonized within and outside of the African American community for being unhealthy and cheap, thus there has been a rise in vegan soul food restaurants in recent years. This return to soul food’s plant-based origins is an example of African Americans’ efforts to resist stereotypes, modernize Black cuisine, and return to the food’s healthier, West African roots. Although soul food and Southern food share similar dishes, they are culturally different. Soul food is a cultural creation that is associated with the Black community, distinguishing it from Southern food; however as white America increasingly appropriates and commodifies soul; this cultural separation is quickly disappearing.

Defining Soul Food

There are various definitions of “soul food,” but many of them are focused on its connection to slavery and African American identity. The term “soul food” was coined in the 1960s and 1970s during the Civil Rights Movement (Henderson 2007; Opie 2008). In his book Hog & Hominy: Soul Food from Africa to America, Frederick Douglass Opie (2008) separately defines “soul” and “soul food,” arguing that the concept of soul in African American foodways developed well before the label “soul food.” According to Opie (2008), the term “soul” is a product of the cultural mixture of African tribes, encapsulating black suffering, survival with dignity, spirituality, and wisdom. He celebrates the concept of “soul food” by defining it as the “intellectual invention and property of African Americans…the fabulous-tasting dish made from simple, inexpensive ingredients” (Opie 2008, XI). He claims that soul food is enjoyed by African Americans, because it reminds them of their southern roots (Opie 2008). Opie’s positive outlook portrays soul food as an important aspect of black identity and culture. Opie (2008) argues that the suffering and survival of slaves and freed African Americans greatly contributed to the development of soul food. Likewise, in his book The Potlikker Papers: A Food History of the Modern South, John Edge (2017) analyzes the celebration of soul food by the black community. He describes Helen Mendes’s, author of The African Heritage Cookbook, definition of soul food as a “cultural expression of ‘Black International society’ that spanned the Atlantic from West Africa to the Americas” (Edge 2017, 70). Opie (2008) and Edge (2017) both portray how soul food can be interpreted as an extension of black identity and African American community’s connection West Africa.

Some scholars believe that certain ingredients, many of which are tied to West Africa, are responsible for distinguishing soul food from southern food. Culinary critics, William Van Deburg and Craig Claiborne (2007), argue that ingredients like hog maws, neck bones, ham hocks, and chitterlings used in soul food dishes differentiate it from traditional southern cuisines, since these were parts of the pig that the white plantation owners did not want (Henderson 2007,). Likewise, in PBS’s Somewhere South, Season 1 Episode 2: Porridge for the Soul, Chef Ricky Moore (2020) says that the general public’s idea of soul food is “fried chicken, collard greens, macaroni cheese, candied yams, corn bread” (Hill 2020, 30:00). He goes beyond this stereotypical image of soul food by stating, “I can go a little deeper—pig tails, pig knuckles, ears” (Hill 2020, 30:09). Like Van Deburg and Claiborne (2007), Moore (2020) recognizes the tangible differences that define soul food, originating from slavery and inequality during the antebellum period.

Opposing Perceptions of Soul Food

Some African American scholars, like Toni Tipton-Martin, believe that it is harmful to limit and alienate African Americans to only one type of cuisine. Toni Tipton-Martin (2019) resists racial tropes by publishing recipes of middle-class and elite African Americans in her book Jubilee: Recipes from Two Centuries of African American Cooking. She argues that African American cuisine is multifaceted and goes beyond the simple, inexpensive dishes that people associate with soul food. Martin (2019) states that African American cuisine “reflects the blending of two distinct culinary styles. One was crafted by ingenuous and industrious field hands in the slave cabin, from meager ingredients, informed by African techniques. The other signifies the lavish cooking—in the plantation kitchen or in the kitchens owned by people educated formally and informally in culinary arts” (Tipton Martin 2019, 12). Although she acknowledges the contribution of slaves to African American cuisine, Tipton-Martin (2020) asserts that African Americans should not be entrapped by the limitations of soul food. In Somewhere South, Episode 2: Porridge for the Soul, Tipton Martin claims, “African Americans are a very diverse people. The idea of narrowly defining us by one category of dishes has been unfair” (Hill 2020, 32:40). This belief that soul food narrowly defines African Americans to one type of dish contrasts the beliefs of other scholars who celebrate soul food as a component of black identity.

Soul food is sometimes interpreted in the African American community as an artificial, social phenomenon that is harmful to the development of Black cuisine. Like Tipton-Martin (2020), Adrian Miller (2009), a James Beard Award-winning author and food scholar, also believes that soul food limits African American cuisine and creates an “artificial separation” (Alters 2009). They both agree that the soul food categorization causes more harm to the African American community. In an interview with Huffington Post, Miller (2009) states that black activists in during the 1960s black power movement promoted the belief that white people could never understand soul food, but according to Miller, “this was news to white southerners because they were actually eating the same thing for several centuries” (Alters 2009). Miller (2009) claims that this “artificial separation of soul food and Southern food meant that the shared history of the two cuisines was lost, even though their offerings overlapped,” thus the inherent blackness of soul food that was cultivated in the 1960s and 1970s was erased decades later when soul food became more mainstream within white America  (Alters 2009). This growth in popularity leads to the commodification and gentrification of African American cuisine. John Edge (2017) describes white America’s embracement of soul food as a “fetish” and “as a roster of exoticisms that offered a glimpse of black life,” which contrasts the rejection of soul food by many African Americans (Edge 2017, 71).  Like Miller, Edge acknowledges the disappearance of soul food as a component of black identity.

African American Health and Modernizing Soul Food

Soul food is often criticized for being unhealthy and culturally limiting, causing there to be a push to modernize soul food and stray away from its roots to slavery.  Several scholars and black activists emphasize the cuisine’s health problems. For example, when many African Americans were embracing soul food as a vital component of black identity during the Civil Rights Movement, other black activists, like Elijah Muhammad, leader of the Nation of Islam, rejected the cuisine for health and social reasons. In her article, “How to Eat to Live: Black Nationalism and the Post-1964 Turn,” Jennifer Wallach (2014) describes the efforts Muhammad. He did not use the term “soul food” and condemned “traditional southern black dietary practices,” since he was “unwilling to consider plantation foods as a legitimate source of race pride” (Wallach 2014, n.p.). He urged his followers to “cast off the slave diet, which he believed was deleterious to the physical and mental health of the black nation” (Wallach 2014, n.p.).

Like Muhmmad, other scholars connect the African American community’s growing health problems to soul food. Kimberly Nettles (2007) claims in her article, “Saving Soul Food” that there is a fear in both white America and black America that “the foods that black people consume are prime culprits in our rising rates of obesity, Type II diabetes, coronary heart disease, and hypertension” (Nettles 2007, 108). According to Kalah Vance (2018), in “Culture, Food, and Racism: The Effects of African American Health, that “poor education, less employment opportunities, low income, segregated housing, and food culture, African Americans have become disproportionally affected by chronic diseases. A number of these diseases specifically obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease, could be positively affected by an improved diet” (Vance 2018, 26-27).  Nettles (2007) and Vance (2018) all show the importance of modifying soul food to make it healthier and beneficial for the African American community.

Vegan Soul Food

The return to soul food’s West African, plant-based roots is an example of the Black community’s efforts to modernize and make soul food healthier. The number of exclusively vegan soul food restaurants has recently increased as owners of these restaurants are striving to modernize soul food and promote healthy eating in the African American community. In a study conducted by the Stanford Prevention Research Center (2020), five primary themes emerged from the in-depth interviews with 12 vegan soul food restaurant owners:

(a) the restaurants providing access to vegan meals, (b) restaurant owners educating their customers about vegan diets and healthy eating, (c) using fresh ingredients to make vegan soul foods taste good, (d) addressing limited cooking skills among African Americans, and (e) discussing nonhealthy reasons to become vegan (Crimarco et.al 2020, 169).

These soul food owners want to reinvent soul food by returning it to its healthier, more plant-based, West African roots. Vegan soul food will promote healthier eating in the Black community, modernize soul food, and challenge society’s stereotypical image of African American cuisine as unhealthy.

Gentrification of Soul Food and Black Owned Restaurants

The gentrification of traditionally African American neighborhoods has led to the appropriation and commodification of soul food. In many predominantly black urban neighborhoods across the country, such as U Street in Washington D.C. and Bedford-Stuyvesant in Central Brooklyn, black soul food restaurants are being replaced by upscale, white-owned restaurants. Some of them even serve traditional soul food dishes, like chicken and waffles (Zukin 2014, 6). In these neighborhoods, “traditional restaurants confirm African Americans’ moral ownership of the neighborhood—even if the buildings that they are in are not owned by blacks,” according to Zukin (2014) in the article “Restaurants as ‘Post Racial’ Spaces: Soul Food and Symbolic eviction in Bedford-Stuyvesant (Brooklyn)” (Zukin 2014, 6). In contrast, Zukin (2014) claims that redevelopment that “’brings better restaurants, especially those that attract white customers, tangibly suggests that blacks have lost their place in the city” (Zukin 2015, 6). Similarly, Sarah Penn (2015) investigates the appropriation of soul food in “Soul Food: An Interpretation of the History, Significance, and Southern Roots of the American Cuisine.” According to Penn (2015), the “recent fame of friend chicken and other southern and soul food staples” has caused acclaimed white chefs across the country to start adding “their own special twists to fried chicken and soul food….while arguably obscuring the food’s roots” (Penn 2015, 15). Penn provides multiple examples of high-end fried chicken restaurants in New York City. In the East Village, a customer can buy a “southern” fried chicken dish prepared with buttermilk and “unorthodox” Old Bay seasoning for $125 (Penn 2015, 14). At the southern-style restaurant Birds and Bubbles, pan-fried chicken with a split of top-shelf champagne costs $55 (Penn 2015, 14). These examples support Zukin (2014) and Penn’s (2015) argument that the appropriation of black soul food has erased black culture and identity in the food industry and in historically black neighborhoods.

Soul food is a complex subject matter due to its complicated origins, evolution, and mixed reputation amongst African Americans today. Some black chefs, such as Ricky Moor believe that the African American community should accept soul food as part of its identity in order to protect it from gentrification and commodification by white America; however, others, skike Toni Tipton-Martin and Adrian Miller believe that soul food is an artificial separation that alienates and limits black chefs. Since the term was coined in the 1960s, many have argued that African Americans should modernize traditional soul food and eat a healthier diet. These opposing beliefs convey the relevance and significance of soul food in African American culture.

Discussion

The label “soul food” is a complicated, culturally constructed term that connotes African Americans’ resilient effort to combat centuries of oppression; however, underlying this history, there is a mixture of endearing and polarizing perspectives of the term within and outside of the African American community. Today, there is little difference between “soul food” and “Southern food” mainly due to the appropriation and commodification of soul food by white America. Because of this diminishing differentiation and the disappearance of authentic soul food restaurants, many black scholars and chefs are uncertain about the cuisine’s future.

In recent years, soul food has become more mainstream, leading to a fetishization of soul food and a removal cuisine’s history and Black identity. In 2016, Neiman Marcus was criticized for cultural appropriation by African Americans for selling pre-cooked, frozen collard greens on their website for $66 plus $15.50 for shipping and handling (Wanshel 2016, n.p.). The product sold out. People were amazed that a food that was considered poor people’s food or black food was now being advertised and sold by a luxury store (Wanshel 2016, n.p.). Once the internet became more aware of this controversy, the hashtag, #gentrifiedgreens, started appearing on Twitter. For example, The Root, an online magazine that covers African American culture, tweeted (2016) “@neimanmarcus’ $66 #gentrifiedgreens better taste like unicorn tears and Prince’s bath water,” excusing the store of overpricing and commodifying a traditional African American dish (@TheRoot 2016).

Several Black Youtubers released videos to express their frustration about this act of cultural appropriation. For instance, in his video, “Nieman Marcus is selling Collard Greens for $66?” Dr. Boyce Watkins (2016) questions Neiman Marcus’s target customer when he asks, “Who does Neiman Marcus think would buy these greens at $66 and have them shipped if they know how to cook it themselves?” (Watkins 2016, 0:54). By questioning why someone would buy this dish if they already have the skills and knowledge to make it, Watkins is implying that Neiman Marcus’s target customer is not a black southerner. This example of appropriation exemplifies the mainstream’s tendency to accept soul food only when it is marketed by and for white Americans. When soul food is associated with African Americans, it is considered unhealthy and cheap; however, when white Americans cook traditional soul food, like fried chicken or collard greens, the dish’s black origins are stripped away and it is considered gourmet.

There are mixed opinions about soul food within the African American community. The growing popularity of vegan soul food demonstrates black chefs’ efforts to modernize soul food and return it to its healthier, West African roots. This modification resists the stereotype that soul food and the African American diet are unhealthy, while celebrating the cuisine’s early African history. This paper shows that the increasing popularity of soul food has caused it to gradually lose it black roots, which is what differentiates it from the general category of southern cuisine. This paper provides current examples of soul food appropriation and the African American community’s polarizing perspectives towards the cuisine. In addition to soul food, the gentrification of black culture and neighborhoods exemplifies the white mainstream tendency to appropriate other cultures for economic gain. Because soul food’s history is usually ignored by companies and non-black chefs, the African American community is pushing others to acknowledge the cuisine’s complex history and pay reverence to the people who cultivated it. To preserve soul food’s relevancy and avoid cultural appropriation, it is important that all companies, restaurants, and cooks that produce soul food pay homage to the history and culture that made it possible.

Conclusion

This paper analyzed the meaning, interpretation, and reception of soul food within and outside of the African American community. It investigated the development of soul food, specifically its ties to West Africa. Many African American activists, scholars, and chefs embrace this culinary connection to Africa as a celebration of Black identity, especially during the Civil Rights movement when the term ‘soul food’ was coined. While some in the Black some in the Black community have a more positive outlook on soul food, others see it as an artificial separating that limits African American cuisine. To oppose the stereotype that soul food is unhealthy and to modernize the cuisine, black chefs are promoting vegan soul food and healthy eating in the African American community. In recent years, the number of vegan soul food restaurants has increased. This plant-based modification returns soul food to its original West African roots. Originally, soul food and Southern food were culturally different; however, because of appropriation and gentrification, this difference is dwindling, causing soul food to lose its cultural significance. The number of high-end soul food restaurants is increasing, but the food’s story is not acknowledged.

For future research, it would be beneficial to investigate recent incidences of gentrification and appropriation of soul food by non-black-owned business and restaurants. This may include collecting data on the number of new soul food restaurants, the food they serve, and their locations. Interviews with African American chefs, business owners, activists, and influencers would provide insight on the community’s perception of soul food and its dwindling relevance. In addition to food, it would be valuable to research the gentrification and commodification of other aspects of Black culture, such as music, fashion, and language. To preserve soul food and its meaning, it is necessary that the mainstream media, businesses, restaurants, and chefs acknowledge and give credit to the African American community when making and selling soul food.

Bibliography

Alters, Kimberly. 2019. “How Soul Food Has Become Separated from its Black Roots.” Huffington Post, February 28. https://www.huffpost.com/entry/soul-food-southern-food-black-history_l_5c76070be4b062b30eb90849

Crimarco, Anthony, Gabrielle M. Turner-McGrievy, Marian Botchway, Mark Macauda, Swann Arp Adams, Christine E. Blake, and Nicholas Younginer. 2020. “‘We’re Not Meat Shamers. We’re Plant Pushers.’: How Owners of Local Vegan Soul Food Restaurants Promote Healthy Eating in the African American Community.” Journal of Black Studies 51, no. 2 (March): 168–93. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021934719895575.

Edge, John. 2017. The Potlikker Paper: A Food History of the Modern South. New York: Penguin Press

Henderson, Laretta. 2007. “”Ebony Jr!” and “Soul Food”: The Construction of Middle-Class African American Identity Through the Use of Traditional Southern Foodways.” MELUS 32, no. 4 (Winter): 81-97. http://www.jstor.org/stable/30029833.

Hill, Cynthia. 2020. Somewhere South. Season 1, episode 2, “Porridge for the Soul.” Aired April 2, 2020, on PBS. https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B088MMBH3X/ref=ppx_yo_dt_b_d_asin_title_o02?ie=UTF8&psc=1

Nettles, Kimberly. 2007. ““Saving” Soul Food.” Gastronomica 7, no. 3 (August): 106–113. doi: https://doi.org/10.1525/gfc.2007.7.3.106

Opie, Frederick. 2008. Hog & Hominy: Soul Food from Africa to America. New York: Columbia University Press

Penn, Sarah. 2015. “Soul Food: AN Interpretation of the History, Significance, and Southern Roots of the American Cuisine.” University of Mississippi.

The Root. Twitter post. November 1, 2016, 4:40 p.m. ‏ https://twitter.com/TheRoot

Tipton-Martin, Toni. 2019. Jubilee: Recipes from Two Centuries of African American Cooking. New York: Clarkson Potter.

Vance, Kalah Elantra. 2018. “Culture, Food, and Racism: The Effects on African American Health.” University of Tennessee at Chattanooga.

Wallach, Jennifer. 2014. “How to Eat to Live: Black Nationalism and the Post-1964 Culinary Turn” Study of the South (July). https://southernstudies.olemiss.edu/study-the-south/how-to-eat-to-live/

Wanshel, Elyse. 2016. “Neiman Marcus Sold Out Of $66 Frozen Collard Greens, And We Have Questions” Huffington Post, November 3. https://www.huffpost.com/entry/neiman-marcus-sells-sold-expensive-collard-greens-gentrification-twitter_n_581b50b6e4b08f9841adb185

Watkins, Boyce. 2016. “Neiman Marcus is selling collard greens for $66 dollars?” YouTube. Video, 1:55. Your Black World. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1YIIvnWatkY

Zukin, Sharon. 2014. “Restaurants as ‘post racial’ spaces: Soul Food and Symbolic Eviction in Bedford-Stuyvesant (Brooklyn)” Ethnologie française 44, no 2: 135-147. https://www.cairn-int.info/revue-ethnologie-francaise-2014-1-page-135.htm

The perceptions of terroir in the south and can how terroir be developed in the South

By Iisak Kukkastenvehmas-Skiggs

Introduction:

Within the South, Food and Culture are intertwined with one another. Providing all sorts of dishes, cuisines, and delicacies. Could some of these be Southern Terroir? It is essential to understand what Terroir is before identifying if it exists or can be developed. The term Terroir originates from France and translates to “the taste of place” (Jacobson 2010). There are many dishes that people associate with the South and tasting southern. Therefore, there should be Terroir in the South or a taste of the South.

This research aims to find out if the South has Terroir, what are the perceptions, and if it can be developed further determining if it is feasible and how best to promote the development of Southern Terroir. This provides insight into the opportunities that could arise from such an undertaking. From the economic incentives to the cultural applications it could have within a community. Understanding the consequences Terroir could bring to the South.

This subject has not had the same coverage as many other topics, so there is a lack of data collected pointing to or against Terroir’s evidence in the South. Many geographic researchers are looking at American Terroir as a whole (Jacobson 2010) and not specifically the South. This research aimed to delve more specifically into the South’s region, providing oversight of Terroir, the possible examples of southern Terroir, and how it could be developed. There are various factors for why individual perceptions of Southern Terroir exist, and the possibilities are for developing Terroir in the South. A critical aspect of this is reflecting on the importance of staying true to tradition while also cultivating the relationship between the land, people, and culture, which best help promote Southern Terroir and provide a positive image of Terroir in the South.

Analysis of Literature:

There is a sense of pride in the South regarding food, with food having importance in all aspects of life. But still, there persists a notion that there is no terroir in the South. Terroir is a term widely used in countries like France to describe the relationship between the land and the crops that it yields. (Blache, 1928) An example of this is champagne, a type of sparkling wine made in a specific region of France, with no other wines from out of the area may be called champagne. When we look at the South of the United States, there is a lack of clarity on whether or not the South has Terroir and how best to grow Terroir. This raises a few questions. What is Southern? What is Terroir? What is Southern Terroir?

When looking at the Terroir history, it is essential to detail the importance of France and Paul Vidal de La Blache. The nation of France were the ones who coined the name Terroir as Paul Vidal de La Blache preached the importance of the unity of France and using their “terroir” they would be able to prosper and have a strong identity. (Blache) Many of La Blache’s writing and speeches on Terroir within France are widely regarded as some of the essential writings regarding Terroir’s topic. He has been huge for regional geography and the development of the field across the world. “President Charles de Gaulle once famously said that it was impossible to govern a country with 365 different kinds of cheese. Had he been alive at the time, Paul Vidal de la Blache (1845–1918) might have responded that such variety is precisely what unifies France.” (Blache 1928, 90) He put forward methods that would change the way many thought when looking at how best to utilize the lands around him to boost the economy and French identity. The importance land has on its people, the relationship the two have on each other. The French have used their land to cultivate life through food and wine, the two pillars of their community. It has allowed them to grow their culture, economics, and political stance in the world. (Blache 1928) French Terroir is an excellent example of it succeeding to the highest effect. One of the United States should identify when approaching the issue of Terroir within the South. By doing this, they would identify specific foods that could be classified as southern Terroir, using France’s methods as a template for success.

Identifying certain foods that could be classified as Southern Terroir starts with the history of Southern food. Food and southern history are intertwined with one another, showing a past drawing from different communities and cultures to make what we now consider Southern Food. As the South was colonized initially, there was a clash of cultures between Europeans, African slaves, and Caribbean slaves, who each brought aspects of their own lives. These are evident in the food culture with spices’ importance and pit roasting like many did in Africa and the Caribbean. The Europeans were responsible for bringing over different kinds of livestock and crops that would be important in developing individual dishes. “Pigs arrived with the earliest Europeans… southerners chose pork over beef” (Ferris 2014, 13).

Another influence in the history of Southern food is the need for healthy foods and can be maintained. This influenced the ingredients used in the dishes as it was only feasible if the ingredient could be grown and preserved easily with the vast population in the South that needed cheap food that could go a long way. One of the biggest influences on Southern Food is the relationship between the South and slavery. For most Southern history, there have been slaves who tended the kitchen; these people would come from all over, bringing their culture and heritage to the meals prepared. “Food traditions hold symbols and meaning that serve as a historical roadmap. For decades she has used an image of okra on her business cards as a symbol of her family’s African roots and her connection to the continent’s cuisine.” (Karen Pinchin, 2014). Each of the dishes that could be considered Terroir has influences from these places and communities, which have played significant roles in morphing Terroir’s current state in the South.

The African American influence in the Terroir of the South is evident with the significant number of black slaves who played roles in creating famous southern dishes like the potlikker, which was made out of necessity for survival. (Edge 2017) Slaves were involved in every aspect of food preparation in the homes of many southern homes; they would pick the vegetables and prepare the dishes in the kitchen. The action they had with the food shows their influence on any dishes that could be classified as Terroir. Another aspect of the discussion is Soul food, which many classify as “Black Southern food.” Many of these dishes were identical to the other southern dishes, but since African Americans prepared them, they were looked at as being Soul food. “The term “soul food” came to represent the food of black Southerners, and “Southern” or “country” the food of white Southerners — even when the dishes were the same.” (Moskin 2018). This speaks volumes to the notion that there is little Terroir in the South as much of it is the same but just rebranded as a subcategory of southern food to distinguish a difference between black and white. Yet, the Terroir of the South is evident in these communities as one that produced southern dishes like collard greens and a variety of prepared meats.

There are a variety of dishes in the South that have and can be considered Southern Terroir. Each one having a tie to the communities as well as the identity of the land in the South. One thing that is widely popular in the South is cornbread and biscuits. Each of these has a tie to the community being involved in many meals and what people see as a staple of the southern dish. Yet the two show the history of the South with each being associated with a group within the South. “cooking biscuits or cornbread for her family was that between, on the one hand, high culture… on the other, ignorance, disease, and unending poverty.” (Engelhardt 2011, 16). Although this has been the case for many years, it is starting to change and morph into one entity, showing the Terroir of the South. Terroir is also demonstrated through the southern barbeque, a part of southern cuisine that combines the past culture and history with the people of the land to produce terroir southerners strongly identify with. Another regional delight is honey, with a strong tradition in many Southern states such as Georgia and Florida (Jacobson 2010). The Tupelo trees which produce the honey are native to the swamps in the South. “To many, the taste of tupelo is the taste of the Southern swamp itself.” (Jacobson 2010, 95). This shows the connection between the land and culture, using the land provided to develop culturally relative delights. There is also the notion that Southern fast food is part of Southern Terroir. Places like Popeyes, Chic-Fil-A, KFC, etc., commercialize Southern food culture with the chicken sandwich and the southern breakfast. “In the past decade or so, the fast-food chains and franchise restaurants have entered the southern breakfast trade” (Whitehead 1992, 57). There are groups to who southern fast food is classified as a subcategory of Southern Terroir. (Engelhardt 2011) It takes what makes a dish southern and wraps it up to be mass-produced and sold to the world. This allows the region to export its goods and show the Terroir of the South to the rest of the United States and the world. Southern fast food is Southern Terroir as it combines the identity of both the land, people, and culture of the South.

While being able to identify foods that are classified as Southern Terroir, it is also essential to be able to develop the Terroir. For southern Terroir to grow, we can look to the historical influences that create classifications of Terroir in the South. The way southern food can make Terroir through the struggles faced and the mix of culture. “Decade by decade, food narratives illumine history. On the long march to equality, struggles over food reflected and affected change across the region” (Edge 2017, 7). Food has driven the narrative in the South and created a relationship between the land, its people, and the cultural melting pot that is the South. Another thing that can promote Southern Terroir is to look at the techniques used for years and keep true to these roots by honoring them and continuing the tradition. This spans from the food preparation and the preservation of the food to the new foods introduced to slaves that forced them to create new dishes with fresh ingredients. “What people don’t really understand about Southern food is that it is all based off of preservation methods. How can we keep the food for the longest period and make sure it’s safe to eat? Africans never ate beef until it was introduced to them in America.” (Bass, 2012). There is an importance in staying true to tradition while also cultivating the relationship between the land, people, and culture, which best help promote Southern Terroir.

The South has a variety of foods and dishes which can be a part of Southern Terroir. There is enormous importance that the history of the South plays on the development and cultivation of southern Terroir. The application of the culture of the South with evidence of successful Terroir like that of the French will allow Southern Terroir to flourish. Terroir in the South is identifiable, and there is room to develop and grow.

Discussion:

Southern Terroir does currently exist in the South. There is a perception by the masses that there is no terroir to develop. There are plenty of dishes and delights that have the right to be classified as Terroir. From cornbread to southern fast-food exports. Each has ties to the history of the South. Each dish varies but brings culture together through their differences. Terroir is the result of this providing a base for expansion and development. The different ingredients and methods within the southern dishes can unify the South and grow Southern Terroir. The perception will change as evidence of its existence is provided, and paths for development are provided.

Dishes like the potlikker show the cultivation between the land, the people, and culture, which provided an iconic dish through the need to survive—an iconic dish with culture and a rich history connected to the South. Barbeque is also an avenue in which Terroir is evident. You don’t just make barbeque but prepare it. There are particular techniques for growing, preparing and cooking the dishes. The culture is deeply rooted in the animals and vegetables used, the available animals, and the need for techniques like slow cooking to preserve food. Using techniques that have been used for years in the South for cultivating food can grow the Terroir. These same techniques influenced culture and how people use their lands, just as Paul Vidal de la Blache put forth in 19th Century France.

The fast-food industry is a great opportunity for spreading Southern Terroir to the world. Franchises is one way which by spreading knowledge of these dishes and their ties to the South allow its legitimacy. This will produce growth of operation, which could develop the economy and provide new opportunities in communities. This provides a more comprehensive picture approach. In southern communities, the small picture approach is to stay true to tradition while developing it for modern-day use, which increases the tie between culture and food, developing southern Terroir.

The finding I have made helps shed light on Terroir’s current state in the South, the possibilities that currently exist to help southern Terroir intertwine itself with Southern Culture. The importance of this topic is crucial to the development and stability of Southern Terroir. Food has such significance in culture in the South; it is something that most southerners can connect with. Southern culture and history are intertwined with food. It is essential to identify and preserve the Terroir of the South so that the culture of the South can bloom, and the people come together through food. Southern Terroir provides an opportunity for the South’s complicated history to be flipped into an opportunity. A chance to embrace their history while also spreading the culture of the South through the land. These findings provide insight into the options there are to grow how Terroir in the South is cultivated, increasing the relationship between the people, land, and culture.

Conclusion:

As the South develops its relationship between the land, people, and culture, they also develop their Terroir. The site affects how something grows and how it is cultivated (Jacobson, 2010). This is also true in the South, which points to the existence of Terroir in the South. The South has a rich culinary history, with many of the dishes being rooted in those who first cultivated the lands. History plays a vital role in the realization of Terroir in the South and provides a framework for promoting Southern Terroir. The interpretation that the South does not have a terroir of its own and that it is no more impressive than that of other American cuisines is shared by many. But these are views that can be reshaped with many historical and cultural dishes rooted in the South, its people, and the land. With dishes like the potlikker and the cultivation of vegetables and crops. These findings provide evidence of southern Terroir’s existence and room for development.

Further research could be done within this topic to find out if the application of Southern Terroir in a community improves the relationship between the land, people, and culture. The economic consequences result from the development of Terroir and if it could become a central connection between food and culture. This would provide us a more in-depth look at the real-world applications of Terroir within the South.

The findings are significant as they develop culture and a more robust definition of what southern Terroir is—providing a platform for the development and cultivation of the relationship between the community and its culture. This is a process that will take some time to establish fully with the current perceptions. But with many paths for development from the fast-food industry to the historical methods of production. This promotes the growth of the relationship between culture and community, which is crucial for the emergence of Terroir in the South.

References

Bass, Erin. 2012. “The Real Roots of Southern Cuisine”, Deep South Magazine.

Blache, Paul Vidal de la. 1928. “The Physiogamy of France” The Personality of France, W.S. Maney & Son Ltd.

Edge, John T. 2017. “The Potlikker Papers” A food History of The Modern South, Penguin Press.

Egerton, Jon. 1993. “Side Orders” Small Helpings of Southern Cookery & Culture, Peachtree Press.

Engelhardt, Elizabeth Sanders Delwiche. 2011. “A Mess of Greens” Southern Gender and Southern Food, University of Georgia Press.

Ferris, Marcie Cohen. 2014. “The Edible South” The Power of Food and The Making of An American Region, University of North Carolina Press.

Jacobson, Rowan. 2010. “American Terroir” Savoring the Flavors of Our Woods, Waters, and Fields, Bloomsbury Publishing USA.

Moskin, Julia. 2018. “Is It Southern Food, or Soul Food?”, New York Times Press.

Parker, Thomas. 2015. “Living the land through scientific literature” Tasting French Terroir, University of California Press.

Pinchin, Karen. 2014. “How Slaves Shaped American Cooking”, National geographic press.

Whitehead, Tony L. 1992. “In Search of Soul Food and Meaning” Culture, Food, and Health, edited by Hans A. Baer, Yvonne Jones, University of Georgia Press.

How has Southern Identity been incorporated into the Chick-fil-A story?

By Megan Carney

Introduction

Truett Cathy once said, “I think I’d like to be remembered as one who kept my priorities in order” (Parker 2016). His list of priorities has positively upheld Chick-fil-A as it is one of the most popular and successful fast-food restaurant chains in the United States. Chick-fil-A was founded by S. Truett Cathy in the mid-1900s outside of Atlanta, Georgia and the company has been growing since. As the world has gotten more secular, religion and business don’t seem to always mix well, but Cathy was able to make it work. The South is rooted in Christian theology, hospitality, and fried chicken and Chick-fil-A incorporates all three aspects of Southern identity into the business. This research paper will analyze the story of Chick-fil-A capitalizing on the notion of Southern identity particularly through a focus of Christian theology, hospitality and fried chicken.

Story of Chick-fil-A

The story of how Chick-fil-A originated is important because it is the reason why the business is the way it is today. Chick-fil-A is an Atlanta originated southern fast food restaurant chain that is known for its unique above and beyond hospitality and its iconic original chicken sandwich. The business began in 1946 when Cathy first opened his original diner, Dwarf Grill, in the Atlanta suburb of Hapeville after World War II ended. Cathy and Ben, his brother, wanted to start a business when they noticed small 24-hour diners opening up around town. Due to the brother’s upbringing, whether it was helping their mom shuck corn or Cathy and his brother paying for groceries using their paper routes, they became the breadwinners of the household. With this responsibility, this gave them confidence to start their own business because of their upbringing of learning how to work hard. The brothers opened Dwarf Grill starting small with limited tables and stools. Their first-day sales totaled just under sixty dollars and little did they know their business would expand into something much bigger –  Chick-fil-A (Parker 2016).

Twenty years after Dwarf Grill opened with successful sales, Cathy wanted to expand the menu and he tried various recipes to create the original chicken sandwich. He discovered the original chicken sandwich to be best with two pickles on a toasted butter bun. From there on, the business continued to grow. In 1986, the first free-standing Chick-fil-A restaurant opened in North Druid Hills Road in Atlanta.  Nine years later, the first advertising campaign featuring Holstein cows with the message “Eat Mor Chikin” originated and was all over billboard signs. Chick-fil-A announced that it would sponsor its first Peach Bowl for football one year later. In 2006, Chick-fil-A surpassed $2 billion in system wide sales. In 2014, Truett Cathy passed away at 93 leaving behind his impactful and meaningful life. One year later, Chick-fil-A opened a three-story, 5,000-square-foot restaurant located in the Big Apple designed for the busy lifestyle of New York customers (Chick-fil-A: History 2020).

Christian Theology

Founder S. Truett Cathy grew up in a Christian household and took these values and applied them into both his business and family. Married to his wife for 65 years, with three children, he led his family based upon biblical principles and also applied them to Chick-fil-A. Chick-fil-A’s purpose is “To glorify God by being a faithful steward of all that is entrusted to us. To have a positive influence on all who come in contact with Chick-fil-A” (Chick-fil-A: Culture and Values 2020). Since most Christian faiths considered the Sabbath as a day of rest, a way of glorifying God was to have a closed-on Sunday policy. Ever since he opened up Dwarf Grill, he saw the importance of having one day off so that he and his employees could spend time with family and worship if they chose (Chick-fil-A: Who We Are 2020).

With Chick-fil-A being closed one day a week due to Christian practices, this has not prevented the business from growing. Based on statistics, the company generates more revenue per restaurant than any other fast-food chain in the United States. Chick-fil-A has only 2,100 locations compared to McDonalds having more than 14,000 locations in the US alone, KFC having over 4,160 and Taco Bell having nearly 6,300, all of which are open seven days a week (Peterson 2017). Although the business is clearly growing, it is important to know who its customers are. A study investigated if religious commitment in the southern United States of closed-on-Sunday policies influenced consumer perceptions and brand loyalty. Results found that consumers with higher levels of intra-personal religious commitment are more likely to hold favorable ethical judgements of closed-on-Sunday corporate policies and have more loyalty towards the business.  This study concluded that those with faith values were more likely to support the business compared to those who were not religious (Swimberghe et al., 2013). In regards to Christian values, there has been some controversy over some of Chick-fil-A’s values, one being not favoring gay marriage.

Due to the business being founded based upon biblical principles, CEO Dan Cathy said in 2012 that he was opposed to same-sex marriage (Piacenza 2017). Due to its beliefs, Chick-fil-A was donating to organizations, such as Fellowship of Christian Athletes and the Salvation Army, two religious affiliated charities that did not support LGBTQ views. This created a lot of discussion and LGBTQ activists were angered, especially since the business does not favor gay-marriage due to its values. This sparked protests, and in 2012 outside a restaurant in Hollywood, CA, a protestor held a sign that read, “Hey Chick-fil-A, Hate Is Not a Family Value.” (Heil 2017).

While there are those who do not favor Chick-fil-A’s stance regarding same-sex marriage, Piacenza (2017) argues that consumers “should be able to separate their sentiments on social issues from where they spend their money. And beyond the 2012 controversy, Chick-fil-A is an organization with an extremely good reputation.” Thomas Ordahl, a chief strategy officer, claimed that the strongest part of their brand is how they treat employees (Piacenza, 2017).  They have provided scholarships to employees for 40 years. Justin Breen, a motion graphic designer with many tattoos and a friend in the gay pornography business claimed that “Chick-fil-A is tradition” after he eats there weekly (Severson 2019). He argues that while people may not agree with Chick-fil-A’s beliefs, this has not stopped the company from growing but also from treating everyone like family.

Southern Hospitality

Being originated in the south out of Atlanta, Georgia, Chick-fil-A incorporates the notion of southern hospitality into its business. According to the Chick-fil-A’s mission statement, the business strives to “to serve great food, provide genuine hospitality and have a positive influence on all who come in contact with Chick-fil-A” (Swimberghe et al., 2013). According to the company, Southern Living, southern hospitality is a way of life below the Mason Dixon line. It is comprised of politeness, good home cooking, kindness, helpfulness, charm and charity which are qualities that make up southern hospitality (Darrisaw 2017). The article “Chick-fil-A VP: Here are five hallmarks of outstanding hospitality,” by Tuner claims that hospitality is not a process. It is a spirit that is born in people with a true desire to serve others. It is also defined as a reflection of how much we care about our guests and that the more we care, the better we can serve. This results in customers feeling loved and brings them back again and again (2017).

It is agreed by supporters that Chick-fil-A has great customer service. Research has shown this to be when a study found that Chick-fil-A has the most satisfied customers. The study interviewed 22,522 randomly chosen customers and asked them to evaluate their experiences with fast-food chains based on customer service. Participants would consider customer expectations, perceptions of quality, and perceptions of values. The results found that Chick-fil-A ranked first under limited-service restaurants with a score of eighty-seven in both 2017 and in 2018 (Klein 2018). Phrases such as “my pleasure” after a customer says thank you, and seeing the words “glad you’re here” on the top page of its website argues that Chick-fil-A has a sense of care for its customers and the results link to customer satisfaction and business growth.

According to Turner, while one does not know what someone walking into a business is feeling, “genuine hospitality can anticipate and meet needs in such a way to win a customer for life or to ensure a guest feels welcomed” (2017). Danziger adds that “in order to thrive in today’s retail environment, retail businesses must put people before product to thrive and that must include both its customers and its employees. Other retailers would do well to copy Chick-fil-A in this principle, too” (2019).  Multiple sources align with Cathy’s culture of care being “essential to our success” and prove there is a rewarding benefit both financially but also relationally when we put people before ourselves (Chick-fil-A: Culture and Values).

Fried Chicken

Fried chicken is the third notion of Southern identity that Chick-fil-A incorporates into its story. The South is known for many dishes, but fried chicken is one of the most popular. Cathy invented the original chicken sandwich in 1946 when a local poultry supplier was tasked by an airline company to “provide a boneless, skinless chicken breast that would fit in the plastic trays of in-flight meals.” The supplier ended up with some leftover chicken breasts that did not fit in the trays so he offered the rest to Cathy. Cathy accepted the order and began experimenting with how to make the best chicken sandwich. He discovered it to be fried chicken fried in peanut oil with two buttered buns and two pickles in the middle (Wood 2017).

Chick-fil-A’s slogan of Holstein cows holding up signs that read “Eat Mor Chikn” is all over billboards across the United States and in the restaurants. Chick-fil-A takes pride in this because they celebrate Cow Appreciation Day every summer where customers can dress up as a cow and receive a free chicken sandwich (“Chick-fil-A Offers Free…” 2019). One may view the slogan in an offensive way as if one is not eating meat and they should be. Meat is often seen as power in the south and as something a man would eat. In the Gravy podcast titled “Eating Meatless,” Choya who does not eat meat suggests that “if eating meat means masculinity, then not eating meat means the opposite.” Chick-fil-A may support the notion that eating meat is power in the south and support the idea that eating meat is a masculine notion because Chick-fil-A encourages customers to eat more chicken.

While fried chicken is a popular dish due to it being crispy on the outside and juicy in the middle, it also has an ugly historic past. The Gravy Podcast titled “A Complicated Comfort Food” describes fried chicken as historically being the vehicle for economic empowerment of a whole group of people as well as the accessory to an ugly racial stereotype. Psyche Williams-Forson stated, “Fried chicken, a largely southern food that emerged out of social institutions shaped by racial complexities, is one of many foods that blurs the lines between the ‘symbolic separations [of] those who prepare the food and those who consume it” (pg. 348).   It was often slaves, specifically black women, who prepared the fried chicken for the whites and they would not consume it to keep the mental distance between cook and consumer (pg. 348).  As mentioned previously, Cathy invented the original chicken sandwich yet he doesn’t discuss the narrative of blacks first inventing fried chicken. This could be interpreted as Chick-fil-A not acknowledging this narrative because the chicken sandwich was invented by a white man, however, Chick-fil-A has not made this claim.

Discussion

Chick-fil-A is an example of a company that incorporates aspects of Southern Identity into its brand through Christian theology, hospitality and fried chicken. Since S. Truett Cathy was raised in the south with Christian morals and values, he saw the importance of them and carried the beliefs and practices into his business. A notion of Christianity is to have a Sabbath, meaning a day of rest once a week and Chick-fil-A holds this practice by being closed on Sundays. Since multiple sources found that being closed once a week did not negatively impact the business’ growth of sales, Chick-fil-A continues to rely on consumers that support the business and found that those with religious commitment were more likely to be loyal to the company than those with less religious commitment (Swimberghe et al., 2013). Results conclude that those with less religious commitment are more likely to support same-sex marriage due to being less conservative.

Southern hospitality is another aspect of identity that Chick-fil-A incorporates into its business. Part of Chick-fil-A’s mission is to provide genuine hospitality and to have a positive impact on all who come in contact with the business. The south is generally known for being kind and warm to anyone visiting the south, although its racial history may conclude otherwise, especially to those who might not be white. Kindness and warmth to everyone are characteristics of southern hospitality that Chick-fil-A implements into its business. The process of hiring employees is taken seriously as these employees must reflect the company’s values of southern hospitality. The common phrase employees say is “my pleasure” in replacement of “you’re welcome.” In addition to in-person interactions, its website says “glad you are here.” These are examples of southern hospitality characteristics of Chick-fil-A putting in effort to reflect characteristics of southern hospitality to make customers feel welcomed. Interesting connection with the region’s racially dark past. Food is definitely a form of power. Maybe try examining this history a little more, specifically fried chicken’s connection with slavery.

Chick-fil-A is known for its number one menu item, which is the Chick-fil-A original chicken sandwich consisting of a piece of fried chicken on a toasted butter bun with a pickle in the middle. Fried chicken is a common southern food and has been historically. It has been an accessory to an ugly stereotype despite it being juicy and delicious. The black slaves often cooked it for the white slave owners and this created this notion of power and status with those who ate meat, often the white men. Not only is fried chicken an iconic meal in the south, but meat in general is a big part of the south’s identity. Chick-fil-A’s slogan could be offensive to one who may have a strong belief to not eat meat. The notion of meat as power in the South and the stereotype for meat being masculine is implemented into the business.

Chick-fil-A is set on its’ Southern Identity through aspects of religion, southern hospitality and fried chicken. The business holds up its’ Christian principles and this has not prevented them from decreasing in sales as they continue to be one of the top fast-food restaurant chains. Their hospitality of making one feel welcomed is essential to the company’s mission along with serving the chicken sandwich. Chick-fil-A’s success proves that a company can capitalize on Southern identity by putting priorities first.

Conclusion

Chick-fil-A has incorporated notions of Southern Identity into its story through Christian theology, hospitality and fried chicken. While religion and business don’t usually mix well, Chick-fil-A is an example of one that does successfully. The success is based on statistics, such as the company being ranked high in customer service as well as the company’s increased growth and expanding internationally. While some do not favor the company’s beliefs, due to being more conservative and finding that those who were less religious were less likely to support the closed-on-Sunday policy, this overall has not stopped the growth of sales and people who support the business.  Research shows that people are drawn in by how they are treated at Chick-fil-A and this is due to having good hospitality. It is a fast-food restaurant that treats its customers well and cares for them which many other fast-food restaurants might not go above and beyond in. The language Chick-fil-A uses such as “my pleasure” and “glad you’re here” suggest that it values others and serving them. With Cathy’s life centered around family, he made sure his business would act as a family and genuinely care for others through his Christian beliefs.

References

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Chick-fil-A, 2020. “Who we are.” https://www.chick-fil-a.com/about/who-we-are

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Gross, Renee,“Coming Out Meatless” September 10, 2015 in Gravy Podcast. https://www.southernfoodways.org/gravy/coming-out-meatless-gravy-ep-21/ 

Heil, Emily, 2019. “Chick-fil-A drops donations that angered LGBTQ groups, and conservative leaders cry betrayal.” https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/voraciously/wp/2019/11/18/chick-fil-a-drops-donations-that-angered-lgbt-groups-and-conservatives-cry-betrayal/

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https://thechickenwire.chick-fil-a.com/inside-chick-fil-a/a-life-centered-on-family

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Severson, 2012. “A Fast Food Loyalty Rooted in Southern Identity.” https://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/03/us/chick-fil-a-loyalty-is-rooted-in-southern-identity.html

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Taylor, 2019. “Chick-fil-A is ramping up its international expansion, opening its first location in the UK.” https://www.businessinsider.com/chick-fil-a-international-opening-first-location-in-the-uk-2019-10

Taylor & Yuan, 2019. “How Chick-fil-A took over America, explained in charts.” https://www.businessinsider.com/chick-fil-a-fast-food-domination-explained-charts-2019-8

Turner, Dee Ann, 2017. “Chick-fil-A VP: Here are five hallmarks of outstanding hospitality.” https://www.foxnews.com/opinion/chick-fil-a-vp-here-are-five-hallmarks-of-outstanding-hospitality

Peterson, 2017. “Why Chick-fil-A’s restaurants sell 4 times as much as KFC’s.” https://www.businessinsider.com/why-chick-fil-a-is-so-successful-2017-8

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Williams-Forson, Psyche. More Than Just the “Big Piece of Fried Chicken”. The Power of Race, Class, and Food in American Consciousness. (21). (342- 353).

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