4.1.4 Research Paper

Introduction 

The concept of Ley lines has been around for nearly a hundred years. While supporters still exist today, the Ley line theory has been strongly criticized in the scientific world. As critical thinkers, we must ask ourselves: what evidence supports this theory and why do people still uphold it? Furthermore, we must evaluate whether Ley lines are pseudoscientific in nature, or merely a misunderstood theory lacking a proper argument. Research shows that through a critical thinking lens, the Ley lines theory has no evidence supporting its existence that would merit it being considered scientific in nature, unless one were to utilize magical thinking.

In essence, Ley lines are supposed energy fields or ‘roads’ that run unseen across the earth. They are believed to connect spiritual or historical sites, such as churches. Even though there is no concrete evidence for Ley lines, a wide range of peoples and groups have tied the concept of Ley lines into their religions, conspiracies, and traditions. This paper seeks to cover how Ley lines have been used as support for different beliefs, and it will explain why this is an example of circular reasoning and does nothing to uphold the Ley line argument. In fact, the only thing that the theory of Ley lines proves is that human beings have an excellent capacity for ‘connecting the dots’ or finding patterns in the world around us.

History

To understand how the Ley line argument originated and gained traction, it is necessary to cover the history of how Ley lines were first introduced. The idea of Ley lines was first presented by Alfred Watkins in 1922, who believed that straight lines could be drawn between historic sites around Britain and that these lines represented the trade routes used by ancient British societies (Watkins, 1922).

The sites Watkins referred to were from Roman, prehistoric, and medieval time periods. He surmised that the straight tracks fell out of use during the Bronze and Iron Age.  For context, the Bronze era took place between 3300 and 1200 BCE, while the Iron Age was between 1200 BCE and 600 BCE with the start of the Viking civilization. According to the Ley Hunter website, “The pattern had been accidentally preserved here and there due to the Christianization of certain pagan sites which were markers along the old straight tracks” (The Society of Ley Hunters, n.d.).  These pagan sites were believed to have been taken over by Christians and are now consequently replaced with Christian landmarks such as churches.

A common argument in favor of Ley lines reasons that, since many major cities are located along trade routes, there must be evidence of these trade routes being formed from Ley lines and therefore providing a kind of unseen energy source on which the cities are built. It’s not difficult to see how this line of reasoning comes about since trade routes were most certainly used in the placement of cities. This, for example, is why port cities like San Francisco and Baltimore exist. Cities naturally tend to grow on and around trade routes, driven largely by money and resources, and the pattern of cities popping up around major trading spots has been consistent throughout history. However, a natural progression and growth of highly populated areas along trading routes does not prove anything concerning Ley lines, and shows weak inductive reasoning on the part of the Ley hunters who have not taken into account the logical reasoning behind the growth of such areas. This line of thinking is obviously circular: Ley lines exist, so trade routes must be because of Ley lines; cities are located on trade routes, so cities must be placed along Ley lines; therefore, Ley lines exist.

According to Benjamin Radford, “In the 1800s on the British Isles, many people believed in mysterious “fairy paths,” trails connecting certain hilltops in the countryside. It was considered dangerous (or, at the very least, unwise) to walk on those paths during certain days because the wayward traveler might come upon a parade of fairies who would not take kindly to the human interruption” (Radford, 2013). These fairy paths were a popular belief at the time, and many Ley line believers assumed fairy paths were a natural equivalent to Ley lines. While there are some obvious similarities, these fairy paths were not believed to be ‘energy roads’ connecting important sites, but rather certain parts of the landscape that were said to be used by a supernatural entity. Therefore, this theory connecting fairy paths to Ley lines would be an example of cherry-picking since the argument selectively chooses unconnected evidence to support a faulty claim (Lavin, 2020 p. 108).

While Ley line theories have mostly been put forth in a historical context, there are examples showing that some of the sites purported to be evidence of Ley lines can be as simple and ridiculous as telephone booths. To prove this, a man by the name of Richard Atkinson was once able to ‘connect’ all of the telephone booths in Great Britain (Burl, 1984). As Ley lines are believed to connect significant sites throughout the world, telephone booths being notably absent from this category, there is no credible reason for such places being connected through unseen energy lines. In fact, they are connected by very real and tangible ‘energy lines’ which enable their use. Furthermore, phone booths are typically placed where people need them and are mostly placed at random. It would be just as easy to find patterns around every fire hydrant or play connect-the-dots with power lines.

The existence of Ley line theories is not yet a thing of the past. In the modern-day, there exists a Society of Ley Hunters (mentioned above), which is a group of people that are continuing to expand Alfred Watkins’s ideas and search for Ley lines, attempting to prove their existence and use throughout history. This group of people regularly convenes in online forums, one being their website: The Society of Ley Hunters. In this society, there appear to be online meetings, where the members chat with each other about Ley lines. But if there is truly an extant group or groups that support this theory, surely there must be some evidence to back it up? While this may seem like a common sense assumption, the world of pseudoscience is not so simple. The strange nature of these beliefs is exemplified by the complete lack of geographical evidence for Ley lines, which appear to exist only in a fictional narrative.

Geographical Context 

Geographically, Ley lines are believed to act as straight lines, which is not something that always occurs when it comes to trade routes. James Thurgill details his own experience of “deep mapping” in order to find a Ley line, which is simply a process of walking between two significant sites and finding that there are landmarks between them that lie on a straight path: “I had begun to map “deeply”, navigating a route by studying, moving, and sensing my surroundings, by noticing the way a path “unfolded” before me.” (Thurgill, 2015). Obviously, the easiest way to get from one place to another is by walking a straight line. Ley lines are not the first or only entity that has figured that out, as walking in a straight path is something humans have been doing for quite a long time. Therefore, the geographical evidence that ‘proves’ Ley lines is merely a series of coincidental placements along a path that has been used previously by other people. As one can imagine, this sort of reasoning doesn’t hold up under much scrutiny.

When discussing ‘significant sites’, it’s necessary to mention that a so-called important site for Ley lines can be natural developments such as a pond, hill, or copse of trees. According to Thurgill, “Ley lines enrich history through a deepening of our interrelation with the natural world and of greater import still, they provide a way of getting back into the landscape, of mapping, retracing, reimaging and resurrecting our position within and amongst places.” For like-minded people, Ley lines create a sense of being connected to the land and help to understand the world around us. In that context, it makes more sense for Leys to be viewed as a spiritual connection rather than having a physical manifestation in our world. For this reason, Ley lines have more historical use and context, while geographically Ley lines have little meaning or evidence supporting the theory. The cultural importance of Ley lines circularly stems from these sites’ historical context, even though Ley lines have apparently played no role in the placement of these important sites.

Neolithic Britain 

The disciplinary lens of anthropology is used to analyze cultures and history in order to understand human nature and learn more about our past. As such, it is useful to look at examples of where and when Ley lines have been used from an anthropological standpoint to determine their influence in recent history and culture. Perhaps the most popular example is the monument of Stonehenge, a site that has been culturally significant in a large variety of ways.

Stonehenge is a world-famous monument that is located on the Salisbury Plain in Wiltshire, UK. Many modern historians claim that Stonehenge was not built by a singular group of people. Since the monument took over 1,000 years to build, it is currently believed that multiple tribes of people over several hundred years contributed to the construction of Stonehenge (“Stonehenge”).

There is a plethora of research and archaeological evidence showing that Stonehenge was used as a burial site and a religious ceremonial site for a large part of its history. Stonehenge is a commonly used example of ‘evidence’ for Ley lines, and for many years the mystery shrouding the site allowed for pseudoscientists and conspiracy theorists to utilize Stonehenge for their arguments or claims. According to Stonehenge News, Stonehenge is believed to have at least 14 Ley lines converging at the site. Many believe that the strong energy that the Stonehenge Ley lines give off is the reason that ancient people were able to transport the stones used in construction for over 160 miles.  Furthermore, the site is believed to have powerful earth energy because the stones perfectly align with the sun at midsummer and midwinter. It is also said that if you go to Stonehenge and ‘harvest’ its energy you will improve your own physical health. There are methods that you can use to ‘recharge’ yourself, and guides will help you with restoring your energy through methods such as crystal charging, meditation groups, and even a method called handfasting. Handfasting at the stones is an ancient ritual for marriage where the couple places both of their hands on the stone which symbolizes an eternal union (Ley Lines | Stonehenge Guided Tours, n.d.). This is by no means an extensive list of the rituals and spiritual practices done at and in the name of Stonehenge, but it gives an idea of just how popular the site is for these types of beliefs. In that light, it seems almost fitting that Ley lines should be lent a small portion of Stonehenge’s pseudoscientific fame.

The theories and practices surrounding Stonehenge are notable examples of an Appeal to Ignorance (Van Cleave). The fallacy states that when something doesn’t quite match up, it’s open to pretty much any theories or ideas. Since no one really knows who built Stonehenge or what the exact purpose was (although this is no longer true), there’s no one to say it couldn’t be a site of healing powered by magical lines running through the earth. Numerous documentaries and claims have been made about Stonehenge, so it’s no wonder why its cultural impact runs so deep. In this instance, Ley lines are being used as an example of one of the many mystical properties surrounding Stonehenge, along with crop circles, energies of the cosmos, and various other earth energies. Once again, Ley lines are not something that seem to stand on their own as an unconnected belief but rather are used to support and strengthen other pseudoscientific arguments. While Stonehenge is obviously a historically significant spot, both for archeologists and pseudoscientists, there are other examples showing the supposed importance of Ley lines in recent culture and history.

Feng Shui 

Many supporters of the Ley line theory argue that this belief is not a new revelation isolated to European superstition. While Alfred Watkins was, indeed, the person who coined the term ‘Ley lines’, there have supposedly been a variety of cultures that hold similar, if not the same beliefs in the phenomenon of Ley lines (although under different names). One example of this apparent convergence is Feng Shui (“What are ley lines or leys”)

According to the article “Foreigners and Fung Shui”, the complexities of this ancient belief seem to go much deeper than the Ley line theory, and are applicable to almost every part of life: “Fung Shui doctrine embraces magnetism, cosmic waves, radioactivity, the mysteries of heaven and earth, the natural sciences, logic, higher mathematics, chemistry, geology, geography, philosophy, astronomy, psychology, ecology, architecture, spatial orientation, and ergonomics” (Waters, 1994, p. 59). While that extensive list is hard to summarize, the general idea seems to be living in tune with the earth and its respective energies. The article details how this is a very prevalent idea in Chinese culture (although it seems younger generations might be more skeptical) and can influence even the smallest portion of life such as furniture arrangement in rooms (p. 62).

Obviously, the cultural impact of Feng Shui is a great deal older and more developed than the Ley line theory, which is relatively young in comparison. It seems remarkably shallow to take a time-worn belief that has had a significant influence on Chinese culture and say that it is the equivalent of Ley lines. This appears to be a weak attempt to gain credence for Ley lines which does not hold up under any scrutiny. The purpose of this clarification is not to try and prove or disprove Fung Shui, but to point out that the belief in Fung Shui cannot reasonably be attributed as equivalent to Ley lines. There have been altogether too many instances of Westerners cherry-picking bits and pieces of Asian culture in order to fit certain narratives, but unfortunately, the threadbare connections don’t stop there. Religion has been relatively untouched up to this point, but now must be considered as an important selling point of the Ley line theory.

Christianity 

Due to their origin in a Christian-dominated landscape, Ley lines are most commonly used to ‘connect’ Christian sites. The best example of this is England’s churches, one of which is discussed in the article The Church, its Crypt, and the Ley lines (Lester, n.d.). Lester gives a broad overview of some relevant publications, seemingly attempting to build support for the theory of a Ley line running underneath St. Mary’s crypt, which is located beneath Lastingham Church in York. The author begins by saying that this idea is a “tradition”, and that it is unwise to dismiss “folk tales, legends or traditions as they are usually based on some fact from which they originate.” This unique reasoning then leads to the claim that “[The Ley line’s] properties can be scientifically verified as being lines of natural energy”. It is also worth pointing out that there is no scientific evidence or sources offered following that statement, which is only supported by a series of secondhand accounts concerning how a variety of people sensed invisible forces when entering the crypt beneath Lastingham church. This account shows, if nothing else, that Ley lines can sometimes be used in tandem with religion by groups claiming to find some sort of supernatural energy related to their beliefs or place of worship.

According to Christopher Street in the book London’s Ley Lines: Pathways of Alignment, “In a Christian sense, [Leys] are pathways of the Holy Spirit. A web of divine power between places of worship or sacred celebration. Their origins and essence, of course, are pre-Christian, but many of their current mark points are fully functional as today’s local parish churches and their services, prayers, sacred music, and bell ringing all seem to play a role in boosting the energy of the ley system and keep it flowing, just as the rituals and activities of the pre-Christian temples before them did.” (Street, 2010, pg. 4) Evidently, it is a common belief in these circles that Ley lines were discovered long before the spread of Christianity. It therefore follows, according to this argument, that the Leys are not coincidentally connected by churches, but rather are the reason for the churches’ placements. This is either because of some kind of supernatural draw to those places, or simply because pagan sites were built over and replaced with Christian ones during colonization. While theories vary, the general principles are the same for many believers of the supernatural: Ley lines and the Christian faith are intertwined.

Psychology 

Having covered some examples of the cultural influence of Ley lines, it is necessary to illustrate why humans tend to things such as Ley lines to make sense of the world around them. Looking through the disciplinary lens of psychology, which studies the mind and human behavior, will help explain the final aspect of the question at issue. More specifically, why human nature tends to find seemingly unconnected patterns in the world around and why people use these patterns to fit their beliefs.

Pattern-seeking is such a well-known aspect of the human mind that it has already been given its own term: apophenia. According to an article on the subject, apophenia is “the tendency to perceive meaning in unrelated events” (Fyfe et al., 2008).  While severe cases of apophenia are often linked with schizophrenia, the general term is applicable in a wide range of study. Ley lines are a magnificent example of apophenia; that is, drawing (literal) connections between important sites that have no relation to one another.  Another quote from Fyfe et al. (2008) highlights this phenomenon, “perceiving meaning in randomness and, more particularly, attributing mental states where none are indicated, may be important factors in the formation of paranormal and delusional beliefs.” One can imagine an intense movie scene where the main character is standing before a board of evidence strung with red yarn, quickly connecting pieces of news articles linking the villain’s evil plot. While the idea of making important world-saving realizations is appealing for a variety of reasons, there are few moments in day-to-day life that have such lightbulb moments. Ley lines offer such an experience of “connecting the dots” so to speak, as long as those doing the connecting are willing to ignore the lack of evidence and scientific support for these fictional rivers of energy.

“Whether Ley lines exist or not, the fact that many people believe they do provide insight into the human brain’s amazing capacity for finding patterns in the world around us” (Radford, 2013). This quote beautifully summarizes the principle purpose of the disciplinary lens of psychology. It does not ask whether something is necessarily right or wrong, but rather why that ‘something’ persists in human behavior. In this case, Ley lines are the ‘something’ being questioned. As mentioned above, there is no geographical evidence to prove Ley lines exist; so why do such ideas still exist in this day and age? The answer is linked to confirmation bias, which according to Allahverdyan and Galstyan (2014) is “the tendency to acquire or evaluate new information in a way that is consistent with one’s preexisting beliefs”. Again, it is easy to see how this description fits the concept of Ley lines; they are commonly used as ‘evidence’ for a theory or even religion. Rarely do they stand on their own as a separate entity or claim, making Leys an excellent candidate for confirmation biases. It’s like putting up a sheet of paper with tear-aways at the bottom that says, “Take one for whatever you need! Ley lines support Stonehenge, Christianity, you name it!” This is an example of cherry-picking (or Texas sharpshooter fallacy) in order to support one’s claims (Lavin 2020, p. 108). Finding and reinterpreting randomness, then using that supposed ‘evidence’ to make a claim that there are pathways of energy throughout the earth is not as strong of an argument as one might think.

The claim that Ley lines are pseudoscientific has already been made at several points, but the question still stands as to whether they fall under pseudo-theory promotion or science denialism as outlined by Hansson (2017). Ley lines appear to fall under the category of pseudo-theory promotion as they do not line up with most of the qualifications for science denialism. Most of the arguments made for Ley lines have to do with the spiritual and mystical aspect, rather than a false pretense of science.

Conclusion 

A research paper from the journal Disputatio summarizes the conclusion that may be drawn from the disciplinary lens of psychology: “Psychologists exploring the fallibility of testimony and studying human propensities to believe in supernatural agency find a rich source of data” (Edis, 2019). This is well-aligned with the claims made about Ley lines; it is human nature to find patterns in everyday life and use wishful thinking to support what one believes. Ley lines are simply a more extreme example of apophenia and confirmation bias plucked from the realm of pseudoscience. With that, it is possible to finally answer the question of why Ley lines have been and continue to be culturally significant: they are easily manipulated, making them excellent candidates to add false weight to many viewpoints. This in turn makes Leys conveniently applicable to almost any argument pertaining to pseudoscience and conspiracy theories.

References

A short history of ley hunting. History of Ley Hunting. (n.d.). https://leyhunters.co.uk/be2.html

Allahverdyan, A. E., & Galstyan, A. (2014). Opinion dynamics with confirmation bias. PLoS ONE, 9(7). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0099557

Burl, A. (1984). The Alignment of Ancient Sites Conference, Cambridge 1983. Antiquity, 58(222), 48. http://login.library.coastal.edu:2048/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/alignment-ancient-sites-conference-cambridge-1983/docview/1293780957/se-2

Taner, E. (2020). A Revolt Against Expertise: Pseudoscience, Right-Wing Populism, and Post-Truth Politics. Disputatio, 9(13).

Fyfe, S., Williams, C., Mason, O., & Pickup, G. (2008). Apophenia, theory of mind and schizotypy: Perceiving meaning and intentionality in Randomness. Cortex, 44(10), 1316–1325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2007.07.009

Hansson, S. O. (2017, May 31). “Science Denial as a Form of Pseudoscience,” Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0039368116300681.

Lavin, A. (2020). Thinking Well: A Creative Commons Logic and Critical Thinking Textbook. 3rd edition. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. https://www.coursehero.com/file/68307737/Thinking-Well-Lavin-Edition-3pdf/.

Lester, E. (n.d.) The Church, It’s Crypt and the Ley lines. The Friends of Lastingham Church. http://www.lastinghamfriends.com/the-church-and-its-ley-lines.html.

Ley Lines. Stonehenge Guided Tours. (2018, June 18). https://stonehengetrips.com/tag/ley-lines/

A&E Television Networks. (2010). Stonehenge – location, Definition & Age. History.com. https://www.history.com/topics/european-history/stonehenge

Radford, B. (2013, November 20). The lore and Lure of Ley Lines. LiveScience. https://www.livescience.com/41349-ley-lines.html

Thurgill, J. (2015). A strange cartography: Leylines, landscape and “Deep mapping” in the works of Alfred Watkins. Humanities, 4(4), 637–652. https://doi.org/10.3390/h4040637

Watkins, A. (2008). Ley lines: Early British trackways, Moats, mounds, camps and sites. Forgotten Books.

What are ley lines or Leys. Feng Shui Ley Lines | Leys or Earth’s Energy Lines | Information & Facts. (n.d.). http://chinesehoroscop-e.com/fung-shway/feng-shui-ley-lines.php