8.1.4 Research Paper
Important terms
Clairvoyance – Discerning objects, people, or places without being physically present
Extrasensory perception – Ability to acquire information without any physical senses
Mediumship – Ability to communicate with the dead or other spirits
Precognition – Being able to observe future events before they happen
Psychometry – Ability to touch inanimate objects and gain knowledge about associated events or people
Retrocognition – Having supernatural knowledge of past events
Telepathy – Ability to communicate via thoughts
Introduction
The purchase of psychic readings in the United States hit a new high in 2020, with 2.2 billion dollars spent on such services. The pandemic has caused a notable surge in the use of these pseudoscientific treatments (Macdonald, 2021). Yet this was far from the beginning of extrasensory indulgences. ‘Scrying’ is the practice of dropping ink into water, and making assumptions about the future based on the shapes made. This was practiced by ancient Egyptians and is one of the oldest known forms of future telling. Across the globe, different groups also practiced things like palmistry or the reading of tea leaves (Alexandra, 2018). It seems that superstition and belief in the supernatural have been around almost as long as humans have. The belief in ancient gods and religion had a significant role in the formation of these psychic ideas. This should come as no surprise; people want to know more about the world around them and control whatever they can to provide themselves safety and a source of comfort. Though the belief in extrasensory perception seemed to have taken a dive with the rise of modern society, various media outlets have given it new life. Movies, TV shows, books, and apps have all served to reinforce the idea that telekinesis and psychic abilities are attractive and possibly even achievable.
Extrasensory perception is the supernatural ability to manipulate the environment without physical contact. There are six main categories of extrasensory perception: telepathy, clairvoyance, precognition, retrocognition, mediumship, and psychometry. To the average person, these terms have likely been most commonly heard or referenced in various forms of media. Through the recent popularity of extrasensory perception, there has been a rise in those who believe in these faux properties, and some who even claim that they possess such abilities. Many believe in ESP aided by the logical fallacy of wishful or magical thinking. This fallacy occurs when individuals refuse to accept anything that threatens their belief, so they simply ignore it. It is easier for them to just deny the evidence. The modern preceptors of this ability are those who engage in practices such as necromancy, tarot card readings, and fortune telling while claiming the titles of a medium or psychic. The media has reinforced this thought process and made it seem as though there is a prevalence of extrasensory perception in everyday ventures. The popularization of media such as movies and TV shows that contain ESP has been drawing in more views than ever seen in the past. This is possibly due to new technology advancements and capabilities such as realistic special effects and high-quality animation, making films more powerful and moving than was previously possible. To fully acknowledge the means of extrasensory perception through the media and how it is correlated with the increasing number of ESP believers, the situation must be looked at through a psychological lens, theological lens, and film studies lens.
Psychology
It is important to consider ESP through a psychological lens, as it is a phenomenon of the mind. Note that while researchers deny ESP as a physical phenomenon, it is not contested that people can experience ESP. The key word here is “experience”. There are several possible ways one could experience ESP in their own perception of reality. To date, there is no physical evidence that people can possess abilities that would classify as ESP. An article written by Amy Lavoie in the Harvard Gazette addresses an attempt to find evidence of the phenomenon. Researchers used neurological imaging to try and find reactions to stimuli that could only be accessed if one were using ESP. Long story short, there were no clairvoyants or telepathic individuals discovered (Lavoie, 2008). So why do people still believe in ESP? This is a question that is better answered with psychology rather than neurology. While neurological imaging may be able to help disprove the physical phenomenon of ESP, psychology can address the factors that may contribute to the belief in or experience of ESP.
Various mental illnesses can make people believe they are different from others in society, leading to delusions that could easily be classified as supernatural by the individual affected. When psychologists hear patients claiming to have experiences of ESP, they attempt to understand what may have caused them to believe this rather than denying their experience altogether. They ask questions in order to discover if these experiences could be a result of trauma, psychosis, or any other underlying mental illness. Psychologists typically find that these experiences are not random and are frequently triggered by major life events. One study exploring the connection between trauma and ESP found that “[…]paranormal experiences occur especially frequently after negative life events” (Rabeyron and Watt, 2010). This is not too surprising, as it would make sense that stress could trigger such an experience to occur. Thus, stress and anxiety can be safely attributed as the cause of many hallucinations and paranormal experiences. Some people may personally experience ESP, but this can be explained without requiring ESP to be a legitimate supernatural phenomenon. However, there are a great deal of people who believe in ESP without ever having had such an experience in the first place. The topic of belief in, rather than experience of ESP is admittedly more baffling. One might think that the people ascribing to the belief in such phenomena would be part of a small, niche group, but that is far from the case. A joint study by Marija Branković (2019) questioned the reason behind the need for ESP. It was theorized that “ESP is motivated by a desire to better control one’s environment and reduce some basic anxieties.” The external locus of control, for example, describes an individual’s belief that their life and decisions are primarily affected by external forces. According to Branković, the relation between death anxiety and one’s locus of control is also seen as a strong motivator for the belief in ESP. In summary, individuals who cling to ideas of the supernatural may use it as a way to gain a greater perceived influence over the surrounding environment.
So what differentiates those who believe in ESP and those who don’t? A study by Gray and Gallo (2016) sought to compare the cognitive differences between believers and skeptics of ESP to determine why such a large portion of the population finds credibility in the idea. The researchers found evidence to “[…]suggest that differences in analytical thinking and conceptual knowledge might contribute to the development of psychic beliefs.” Those that have some degree of belief in ESP were in general found to think less analytically. However, this isn’t intended as a direct insult to those who believe. In fact, the study also discovered that there seems to be a correlation between the belief in psychic abilities and “greater life satisfaction.” Thus, it may very well be the case that belief in ESP provides mental and social benefits to some while being unnecessary for others. Historically, there has been a great deal of organized belief in extrasensory perception which is known to be a socially valuable phenomenon for many. Having dipped into some of the relevant psychological research on the topic, the religious point of view must be considered.
Theology
With many religions having their roots in extrasensory perception, it is important to look at this pseudoscience through the lens of a theologist. Most religions start as collections of fables, observations, or tales passed down to a group of people with similar beliefs. The joining factor that strings these phenomena together is faith. Since these observations have little to no scientific evidence of their existence, a system of belief and devotion is required for a religion to become more than just stories.
Mainstream religions do have some scientific data to prove there is logical reasoning for the formation of a religion, but they have also been around for a longer time and have become a staple of normalcy for most. This follows the reasoning of the genetic fallacy which claims that, because something has been around for a long time, it must therefore be plausible (Lavin 2020, p. 89). Century-old practices or beliefs couldn’t be wrong, could they? This is a logical fallacy because a concept’s origins have no direct impact on its current state. This can apply to religions, cultural traditions, and of course, pseudosciences. A study regarding the connection between the paranormal and ESP stated that “belief in ESP is profoundly religious in nature” (Orenstein, 2002). This study was a collection of data from surveys that asked college students about their beliefs in religion and their beliefs in paranormal concepts such as ESP, psychics, deja vu, astrology, necromancy, and reincarnation. The data suggested that those who state they are religious and attend religious gatherings frequently don’t have strong beliefs in the paranormal. The opposite can be said for those who claimed to have been attending religious gatherings seldomly. This highlights the important difference between religious belief and religious participation.
While some individuals may hold a religious belief, it doesn’t necessarily mean that they participate in the rituals, gatherings, or teachings of said religion. The data found in the study between the connection of the paranormal and religion concluded that many have a belief in religion, but don’t participate in religion. It was shown in the study that this led to an increase in belief in ESP. This statement, combined with the data suggesting that those who neither believe nor participate in religion also deny the existence of the paranormal, led the author to conclude that paranormal beliefs have become a kind of substitute for mainstream religion.
Film Studies
Divulging from the two scholastic lenses leaves the final discipline to be considered, the film studies lens. The film studies lens is arguably the most important lens to gaze through, as it is the preceptor of the magical thinking that has become so common in society. Without media influence, it is likely that extrasensory perception would not have the sturdy grip on the imaginations of the public that it currently holds. It is estimated that 75% of Americans have some belief relating to the paranormal – higher than the typical amount worldwide (Merced, 2018). This is a significant portion of people, and the nature of the topic can lead to what is known as the bandwagon fallacy. People assume that since the belief is so common, there must be some truth to the idea since it seems unreasonable that half the population could be wrong! Unfortunately, the fact is that no amount of belief can make a false thing become true. It is also possible that the prevalence of ESP in visual media has contributed to the continuation of the fallacy – it seems so common now that it’s viewed as less taboo than many other pseudosciences.
Books, TV shows, movies, apps, and other common forums for entertainment have several things in common. Though it may not seem obvious, there are established plot structures for successful films. “A good script is only as good as the plot – or the story at the center of it all. Screenwriters and filmmakers agree that it’s this central story that really develops, informs, and controls how you write your script, shoot your shots, and make those final edits” (Aldredge, 2020). The entertainment industry puts pressure on the plot of the media at hand. This is the most important piece of the work, and it is the vision the consumers will see come to life. But what makes a good plot? The plot diagram is the most commonly used medium to track events in a movie. This contains exposition, conflict, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution. Though this is the most widely recognized medium, several other models are also common in the making of movies. Filmmakers regard ‘The Hero’s Journey’ as a way of “taking these building blocks and creating unique and powerful stories” (Aldredge, 2020). The contents of the hero’s journey involve three main aspects: the departure, the initiation, and the return. The circle begins at the departure and then flows through eras such as ‘call to adventure’ ‘supernatural aid’ ‘abyss’ and ‘atonement’. These are a few of the steps that, with attention to detail, can be perceived in movies such as Harry Potter and Star Wars.
Regarding blockbuster hits, extrasensory perception has been a staple in the filmmaking industry. In fact, 65% of movies on the highest-grossing movies list contain ESP, with 15% being children’s movies (Statista.com, 2022). The currency of extrasensory perception in the media is no coincidence.
Films containing ESP became popular in the early 2000s. Before this, movies containing magic and paranormal activity were not as common. This is partially due to the intense popularity generated by movie franchises such as Harry Potter, Star Wars, Avatar, and superhero media. After the great success of these film franchises, filmmakers and directors took notes and the entertainment industry has followed suit. In 2022, ⅗ of the most popular movie genres are the ones with the highest percentages of ESP. This includes action, adventure, and suspense/thriller (Statista.com, 2022). Yet, with the production of superior equipment, genres such as sci-fi have had a rise as well. Special effects, new technology, and better editing have aided creators in generating realistic graphics to correlate with their fantastical stories.
Conclusion
To conclude, it has been proven time and time again by medical professionals, psychologists, and theologians that ESP is in fact a pseudoscience. While there is more than one type of pseudoscience, ESP in particular would be classified as pseudo-theory promotion. The theory of extrasensory perception is more focused on promoting an idea that has no scientific evidence rather than denying science in general (Hansson, 2017).
Through the film studies lens, it starts to become apparent why belief in ESP is so common nowadays. In recent years, ESP has become more and more prevalent in films as societal demand for the magical and supernatural increases. It seems no coincidence, then, that in recent years there has been a notable growth of belief in the supernatural. The survey conducted over the course of this project showed that 90% of participants knew of ESP. Of this 90%, 63% heard about it from media such as movies, TV shows, or books. While only a small sample of 40 individuals, the data adds some empirical evidence to the research regarding the connection between ESP and media.
The argument for ESP is fairly one-sided. There is no evidence supporting the existence of ESP, so there is only personal experience to pull from. This concept crosses the line into the logical fallacy of cherry-picking, where certain information is used to support a claim while other information is completely ignored (Lavin 2020, p. 107). Fallacies like ad ignorantiam often occur when people assume that a lack of evidence disproving ESP means that it is real. It can be compared to when a child seeks loopholes in the household rules. The child may say, “Well I wasn’t told not to light firecrackers in the garage, so it must be alright.” However, as both the child and the ESP supporter should realize, a lack of evidence or instructions to the contrary does not make the argument or action correct. As an article on the nature of critical thinking quotes, “[a]ppeals to masses or to emotions, anti–establishment rhetoric, and pseudoscientific theories are gaining attention through the various types of media and the solution to this situation is not clear” (Černín, 2020). These pseudosciences and beliefs were not built in a day and cannot be torn down in a day. However, it is critical to think critically about the nature of such arguments. While still indefinite, it is reasonable to say that there is a correlation between the presence of ESP in the media and the large percentage of people who believe it to be real. The media cannot blindly convince viewers that ESP is real on its own, but rather creates repetitive exposure to the concept that makes people more inclined to believe in it. It seems a monumental task to try and disprove something that has had such a strong influence on religion and social norms. However, the purpose of this text is simply to look at the past and the present with a critical eye. Perhaps a few educated guesses about the future of ESP can be made, but one does not need precognition for that!
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