The purpose of this chapter is to guide you on a path to greater rhetorical awareness and analytic skill development. This chapter is about developing and refining your critical thinking, reading, writing, and analysis skills as you explore and critique the ideas of others through rhetorical analysis. The content and related exercises will deepen your knowledge of rhetoric and how to use it to support your own arguments.

In this chapter, you will not be writing arguments based on your own opinions and beliefs. In fact, you will be setting aside your perspective on the topics in the practice articles completely while you  learn to apply your rhetorical knowledge to analyze the author’s skill in presenting their argument.

In section 2.1, “Understanding Rhetorical Analysis,” you will learn more about what rhetorical analysis is, how to use rhetorical appeals and the related types of evidence to support an argument or perspective, and how to use rhetorical appeals as lenses to critique an argument as effective, ineffective, or some combination of both. The rhetorical analysis processes and skills presented in this chapter will give you experience and knowledge you need to create and present an argument of your own effectively when you engage with the content and assignments.

Using the rhetorical knowledge and “moves” you learn in this chapter, you will write a rhetorical analysis composition and/or create a presentation demonstrating your skill at breaking down and evaluating the quality of a written editorial and/or a TEDTalk.  In other words, you will compose an argument about the quality of another rhetor’s argument. However, you will not be writing about your own opinion on the topic!

By the end of this chapter, our goal is for you to feel like more of a rhetorical insider with the agency to exercise your critical literacies and achieve your rhetorical goals. When you complete this chapter, you will have the rhetorical knowledge, confidence, and skills to write your own effective and balanced academic argument with your audience in mind and to support it with well-researched, credible evidence, rhetorical appeals, and appropriate rhetorical language.

In this section, you will learn how to conduct a rhetorical analysis, appeal by appeal. The content and practice in this section is core to your understanding of rhetorical appeals and how to use them to perform a rhetorical analysis. After you engage with this content and discuss it with peers, you will begin to see that “writing is a social and rhetorical activity” (Roozen in Adler-Kassner and Wardle 17). Whether you are face-to-face with an author, you are engaging with their ideas and arguments. Similarly, they support their arguments with the words and existing knowledge and evidence provided by those who preceded them.   As you develop your rhetorical awareness and analytical skills, you will see that all communications are socially and rhetorically constructed, usually to influence, inform, or entertain and audience.

2.1.1 HOW TO PERFORM A RHETORICAL ANALYSIS 

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For many people, particularly those in the media, the term “rhetoric” has a largely negative connotation.  A political commentator, for example, may say that a politician is using “empty rhetoric” or that what that politician says is “just a bunch of rhetoric.”  What the commentator means is that the politician’s words are lacking substance, that the purpose of those words is more about manipulation rather than meaningfulness.  However, this is a flawed definition, though quite common these days. As you learned in Chapter 1, rhetoric  is more about clearly expressing substance, meaning, and one’s perspective while considering the audience’s wants, needs, and values. rather than avoiding them.

This section will clarify what rhetorical analysis means and will help you identify the basic elements of rhetorical analysis through explanation and example.

WHAT IS RHETORICAL ANALYSIS?

Simply defined, rhetoric is the art or method of communicating effectively to an audience, usually with the intention to persuade; thus, rhetorical analysis means analyzing how effectively a writer or speaker communicates her message or argument to the audience.

The ancient Greeks, namely Aristotle, developed rhetoric into an art form, which explains why much of the terminology that we use for rhetoric comes from Greek.  The three major parts of effective communication, also called the Rhetorical Triangle (see Figures 2.1 and 2.3 below), are ethos, pathos, and logos, and they provide the foundation for a solid argument. As a reader and a listener, you must be able to recognize how writers and speakers depend upon these three rhetorical elements in their efforts to communicate. As a communicator yourself, you will benefit from the ability to see how others rely upon ethos, pathos, and logos so that you can apply what you learn from your observations to your own speaking and writing.

Rhetorical analysis can evaluate and analyze any type of communicator, whether that be a speaker, an artist, an advertiser, or a writer, but to simplify the language in this chapter, the term “writer” will represent the role of the communicator.

WHAT IS A RHETORICAL SITUATION?

Essentially, understanding a rhetorical situation means understanding the context of that situation.  A rhetorical situation comprises a handful of key elements, which should be identified before attempting to analyze and evaluate the use of rhetorical appeals.  These elements consist of the communicator in the situation (such as the writer), the issue at hand (the topic or problem being addressed), the purpose for addressing the issue, the medium of delivery (e.g.–speech, written text, a commercial), and the audience being addressed.

Answering the following questions will help you identify a rhetorical situation:

• Who is the communicator or writer?
• What is the issue that the writer (or speaker) is addressing?
  • What is the main argument that the writer is making?
  • What are the key supporting points, reasons, subclaims?
  • On what assumptions (warrants) does the writer base the argument?
• What is the writer’s purpose for addressing this issue?
  • To provoke, to attack, or to defend?
  • To push toward or dissuade from certain action?
  • To praise or to blame?
  • To teach, to delight, or to persuade?
• What is the form in which the writer conveys it?
  • What is the structure of the communication; how is it arranged?
  • What oral or literary genre is it?
  • What figures of speech (schemes and tropes) are used?
  • What kind of style and tone is used and for what purpose?
  • Does the form complement the content?
  • What effect could the form have, and does this aid or hinder the author’s intention?
• Who is the audience?
  • Who is the intended audience?
  • What values does the audience hold that the author or speaker appeals to?
  • Who have been or might be secondary audiences?
  • If this is a work of fiction, what is the nature of the audience within the fiction?

Figure 2.1 A Balanced Argument

WHAT ARE THE BASIC ELEMENTS OF RHETORICAL ANALYSIS? 

The Appeal to Ethos

Literally translated, ethos means “character.”  In this case, it refers to the character of a writer or speaker, or more specifically, their credibility.  The writer needs to establish credibility so that the audience will trust them and, thus, be more willing to engage with the argument.  If a writer fails to establish a sufficient ethical appeal, then the audience will not take the writer’s argument seriously.

For example, if someone writes an article that is published in an academic journal, in a reputable newspaper or magazine, or on a credible website, those places of publication already imply a certain level of credibility.  If the article is about a scientific issue and the writer is a scientist or has certain academic or professional credentials that relate to the article’s subject, that also will lend credibility to the writer. Finally, if that writer shows that he is knowledgeable about the subject by providing clear explanations of points and by presenting information in an honest and straightforward way that also helps to establish a writer’s credibility.

When evaluating a writer’s ethical appeal, ask the following questions:

Does the writer come across as reliable?

• Viewpoint is logically consistent throughout the text
• Does not use hyperbolic (exaggerated) language
• Has an even, objective tone (not malicious but also not sycophantic)
• Does not come across as subversive or manipulative

Does the writer come across as authoritative and knowledgeable?

• Explains concepts and ideas thoroughly
• Addresses any counter-arguments and successfully rebuts them
• Uses a sufficient number of relevant sources
• Shows an understanding of sources used

What kind of credentials or experience does the writer have?

• Look at byline or search for credible biographical info
• Identify any personal or professional experience mentioned in the text
• Where has this writer’s text been published?

Recognizing a Manipulative Appeal to Ethos

In a perfect world, everyone would tell the truth, and we could depend upon the credibility of speakers and authors. Unfortunately, that is not always the case. You would expect that news reporters would be objective and tell news stories based upon the facts; however, Janet Cooke, Stephen Glass, Jayson Blair, and Brian Williams all lost their jobs for plagiarizing or fabricating part of their news stories. Janet Cooke’s Pulitzer Prize was revoked after it was discovered that she made up “Jimmy,” an eight-year old heroin addict (Prince, 2010). Brian Williams was fired as anchor of the NBC Nightly News for exaggerating his role in the Iraq War.

Others have become infamous for claiming academic degrees that they didn’t earn as in the case of Marilee Jones. At the time of discovery, she was Dean of Admissions at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). After 28 years of employment, it was determined that she never graduated from college (Lewin, 2007). However, on her website (http://www.marileejones.com/blog/) she is still promoting herself as “a sought after speaker, consultant and author” and “one of the nation’s most experienced College Admissions Deans.”

 

Beyond lying about or elaborating upon their own credentials, authors may employ a number of tricks or fallacies to lure you to their point of view. Some of the more common techniques are described in the next chapter. When you recognize these fallacies, you should question the credibility of the speaker and the legitimacy of the argument. If you use these when making your own arguments, be aware that they may undermine or even destroy your credibility.

 

The Appeal to Logos

Literally translated, logos means “word.”  In this case, it refers to information, or more specifically, the writer’s appeal to logic and reason. A successful logical appeal provides clearly organized information as well as evidence to support the overall argument.  If one fails to establish a logical appeal, then the argument will lack both sense and substance.

For example, refer to the previous example of the politician’s speech writer to understand the importance of having a solid logical appeal.  What if the writer had only included the story about 80-year-old Mary without providing any statistics, data, or concrete plans for how the politician proposed to protect Social Security benefits? Without any factual evidence for the proposed plan, the audience would not have been as likely to accept his proposal, and rightly so.

When evaluating a writer’s logical appeal, ask the following questions:

Does the writer organize their information clearly?

• Ideas are connected by transition words and phrases
  • Choose the link for examples of common transitions (https://tinyurl.com/oftaj5g).
• Ideas have a clear and purposeful order

Does the writer provide evidence to back their claims?

• Specific examples
• Relevant source material

Does the writer use sources and data to back their claims rather than base the argument purely on emotion or opinion?

• Does the writer use concrete facts and figures, statistics, dates/times, specific names/titles, graphs/charts/tables?
• Are the sources that the writer uses credible?
• Where do the sources come from? (Who wrote/published them?)
• When were the sources published?
• Are the sources well-known, respected, and/or peer-reviewed (if applicable) publications?

Recognizing a Manipulative Appeal to Logos

Pay particular attention to numbers, statistics, findings, and quotes (expert testimony) used to support an argument. Be critical of the source and do your own investigation of the facts. Remember: What initially looks like a fact may not actually be one.  Maybe you have heard or read that half of all marriages in America will end in divorce. It is so often discussed that we assume it must be true. Careful research will show that the original marriage study was flawed, and divorce rates in America have steadily declined since 1985 (Peck, 1993). If there is no scientific evidence, why do we continue to believe it? Part of the reason might be that it supports the common societal concern about the dissolution of the American family. Or, it could be because one divorce can affect a large number of people, leaving them with the idea that divorce is more prevalent than it is (the availability heuristic at work).

Fallacies that misuse appeals to logos or attempt to manipulate the logic of an argument are discussed in the next chapter in Critical Reading, Critical Writing: A Handbook to Understanding College Composition and Chapter 4 Understanding and Composing Researched Arguments  in this book.

The Appeal to Kairos

Literally translated, Kairos means the “supreme moment.”  In this case, it refers to appropriate timing, meaning when the writer presents certain parts of her argument as well as the overall timing of the subject matter itself.  While not technically part of the Rhetorical Triangle, it is still an important principle for constructing an effective argument. If the writer fails to establish a strong Kairotic appeal, then the audience may become polarized, hostile, or may simply just lose interest.

If appropriate timing is not taken into consideration and a writer introduces a sensitive or important point too early or too late in a text, the impact of that point could be lost on the audience.  For example, if the writer’s audience is strongly opposed to her view, and she begins the argument with a forceful thesis of why she is right and the opposition is wrong, how do you think that audience might respond?

In this instance, the writer may have just lost the ability to make any further appeals to her audience in two ways: first, by polarizing them, and second, by possibly elevating what was at first merely strong opposition to what would now be hostile opposition.  A polarized or hostile audience will not be inclined to listen to the writer’s argument with an open mind or even to listen at all.  On the other hand, the writer could have established a stronger appeal to Kairos by building up to that forceful thesis, maybe by providing some neutral points such as background information or by addressing some of the opposition’s views, rather than leading with why she is right and the audience is wrong.

Additionally, if a writer covers a topic or puts forth an argument about a subject that is currently a non-issue or has no relevance for the audience, then the audience will fail to engage because whatever the writer’s message happens to be, it won’t matter to anyone.  For example, if a writer were to put forth the argument that women in the United States should have the right to vote, no one would care; that is a non-issue because women in the United States already have that right.

When evaluating a writer’s kairotic appeal, ask the following questions:

• Where does the writer establish their thesis of the argument in the text?  Is it near the beginning, the middle, or the end?  Is this placement of the thesis effective?  Why or why not?
• Where in the text does the writer provide her strongest points of evidence? Does that location provide the most impact for those points?
• Is the issue that the writer raises relevant at this time, or is it something no one really cares about anymore or needs to know about anymore?

STRIKING A BALANCE WITH RHETORICAL APPEALS

The foundations of rhetoric are interconnected in such a way that a writer needs to establish all of the rhetorical appeals to put forth an effective argument.  If a writer lacks a pathetic appeal and only tries to establish a logical appeal, the audience will be unable to connect emotionally with the writer and, therefore, will care less about the overall argument.  Likewise, if a writer lacks a logical appeal and tries to rely solely on subjective or emotionally driven examples, then the audience will not take the writer seriously because an argument based purely on opinion and emotion cannot hold up without facts and evidence and writer’s ethos to support it.  If a writer’s argument lacks either the pathetic or logical appeal, not to mention the kairotic appeal, then the audience’s sense of writer’s internal ethos will suffer.  All of the appeals must be sufficiently established for rhetors to communicate effectively with their audiences.

2.1.2 QUIZ YOURSELF ON YOUR UNDERSTANDING AND KNOWLEDGE OF THE RHETORICAL ANALYSIS CONTENT