1

Our story of Western civilization begins with an examination of the earliest societies in Mesopotamia and Egypt and continues on with a brief look at both the Persians and the Hebrews. In Mesopotamia, the area between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in what is modern day Iraq, farming began as early as 7000 BCE, with evidence of irrigation systems being developed as early as 5900 BCE. Cities such as Eridu and Ur appear roughly 400 years later, and were equipped with large stone walls, temples, palaces, and markets. Urbanization and large-scale irrigation projects required organization and planning, which led to the rise of kings who began centralizing power and accumulating wealth. At times kings also served as the chief religious officials in their cities, at times a separate high-priest existed. Whatever the organization religion and myth was important to people of all social classes and all walks of life. The various cultures that rose and fell in Mesopotamia were polytheistic and believed their gods controlled all aspects of life and the physical universe. Temples on huge stepped structures called ziggurats, festivals, processions, sacrifices, and prayers were all ways Mesopotamian people tried to maintain a good relationship with their gods. We also see during this era the first empires in the West being created, as rulers began to want more than tribute from conquered foes, and extended their reach and increased their power.

To the west of Mesopotamia, we find the Nile River and the Egyptian culture that developed around its annual floods that provided fertile silt for the growing of crops. People lived in this region as early as 5000 BCE, but it wasn’t until Menes in 3150 BCE that both Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt were united as one political entity. Egyptian society was strictly stratified, with kings and priests at the top of the hierarchy and the majority of the people as much as 90%, near the bottom as farmers. Essentially a conservative culture, Egyptians of all classes believed in the concept of ma’at, the idea of maintaining the status quo and not making unnecessary changes that could lead to disorder and chaos. This concept is expressed in Egyptian religion, particularly in the popular myth of Osiris, in which Osiris is murdered and dismembered by his brother Set and re-built by his sister-wife Isis. The story symbolizes the Egyptian belief in the cycle of birth, growth, death, and regeneration. Egyptian history is broken into five primary periods: the Old Kingdom, First Intermediate Period, Middle Kingdom, Second Intermediate Period, and New Kingdom. Each Kingdom was composed of various dynasties, and each dynasty was made up of numerous rulers. By the era of the New Kingdom pharaohs were not only earthly rulers but were also believed to be divine, with pyramids and other monumental building projects as testimony to their strength and holy nature.

By 1200 BCE other empires began to emerge in the region generally known as the Near East, including the Assyrians, the Hittites, the Philistines, and the Persians. The Persian leader Cyrus the Great would embark on a series of conquests that would expand his empire to the largest extent any empire had known up to that point, and his son Cambyses would push even further, including into Egypt. Massive building projects, including a 1600-mile long central road linking the empire together, were commonly seen from subsequent emperors, and some, such as Cyrus himself, practiced tolerance toward others, expecting tribute and obedience to law but not imposing culture on conquered peoples. Persian religion centered around the figure Ahura Mazda and his fight against the evil spirit Angra Mainyu. Humans were given free will and needed to choose to walk either the path of Ahura Mazda or the path of Angra Mainyu. According to this belief system, called Zoroastrianism, those choosing to follow Ahura Mazda would play a key role in the eventual final battle with and defeat of the evil spirit. A unique feature of this religion was its ethical nature and calls for humans to treat each other and the natural world with respect.

The tolerant nature of Cyrus the Great and the ethical nature of Zoroastrianism would have a profound impact on the final culture studied in Unit 1-the ancient Hebrews. Primarily a pastoral people in the land of Canaan, they were organized into 12 tribes, with most living in the northern region called Israel and two living in the southern region called Judah. Around the year 1000 BCE David united the tribes in one kingdom as a means of defense against groups such as the Philistines. This united kingdom prospered under both David and his son Solomon, but split once again into two parts under Solomon’s son. The northern ten tribes were conquered and assimilated by the Assyrians, and roughly 140 years later the kingdom of Judah was conquered by the Neo-Babylonians, with roughly one third of the Hebrew population being deported to the capital city of Babylon. It was during this captivity that Judaism emerged, as the Hebrews wrote down, and in some cases re-wrote, what they believed was their own history and relationship with God. Beginning with Abraham, what would become the Hebrew Bible tells the story of the Hebrews as God’s chosen people and their struggles to live up the moral and ethical standards such a position required, and serves as an explanation for their current captivity. After over four decades of being held prisoner Cyrus the Great allowed the Hebrews, increasingly known as Jews, after Judah, the former southern kingdom, to return to their homeland the rebuild their Temple. The return of those who had adopted a new set of religious beliefs and practices led to much tension and important questions about their people and faith that needed answers.

The sources for Unit 1 begin with the Cylinder of Sennacherib, an Assyrian king. The document outlines numerous campaigns he waged, the peoples he defeated, the treasure he took with him, and ends with details of his construction of the capital city of Ninevah. The second source moves into Mesopotamian religion. The Penitential Prayer to Every God is an emotional plea to various deities for atonement for perceived sins. The prayer gives us insight into the attitude of human beings towards their gods as well as the way those gods sometimes behaved. Staying in the realm of religion, the Great Hymn to Shamash is a hymn to the sun god and god of justice. In an interesting contrast to the Penitential Prayer to Every God, the hymn presents a very different opinion of the gods and presents them in a more benevolent light. Next up is a look at some Mesopotamian art and culture via the Louvre Museum website. There are five items to examine covering thousands of years of history and artistic evolution. Some artifacts demonstrate the political uses art can be put to, while others illustrate aspects of Mesopotamia social life. Following that is one of the most famous artifacts from the ancient Mesopotamian world, the Code of Hammurabi. The Code contains nearly 300 articles covering a wide range of topics, from criminal behavior to building regulations to gender relations. The Code gives us great insight into how Mesopotamian cultures at the time handled problems within their society and how they viewed the concept of justice. Following the Code of Hammurabi is the first two videos. From the series Engineering an Empire, the sixth source is on some of the massive building projects ancient Egypt is most famous for, such as the Great Pyramid at Giza and Hatshepsut’s royal palace. Exploring the role of large architectural projects in Egyptian culture, the documentary takes us through the obstacles that had to be overcome to construct these notable structures. Source 7 is a link to the Ancient History Encyclopedia’s entry on the Egyptian myth of Osiris and Isis. The article outlines the story and connects it central themes to important concepts in Egyptian culture. Source 8 comes from the same source, but centers on the figure Hatshepsut, a remarkable woman who took the unusual step of ruling as a man. The article looks at Hatshepsut’s early life, her rise to power, the ways in which she cemented her position as pharaoh, and the attempt to erase her legacy after her death. Source 8 is the second film found in Unit 1, this time on the development of Judaism among those Hebrews taken captive by the Neo-Babylonians. The documentary explores the reasons for the Hebrew Bible’s creation and what those stories tell us about the Hebrews and how they understood their own history. There is also some discussion of the difficulties of rectifying Biblical narrative with the archeological record. Finally for Unit 1 we return to the Ancient History Encyclopedia for an article outlining the life of King David. One of the most famous people in history, David plays a crucial role in the development of the Israelites both in terms of politics and religion. His reign was part of the “Golden Age” man Jews in later generations wished to return to, and his actions have a central role to play in the development of monotheism and the ever difficult relationship with God.

1. Cylinder of Sennacherib

Sennacherib was an Assyrian King from 705-681 BCE who fought numerous campaigns, many of which are described on three hexagonal shaped cylinders. The selection below comes from the Taylor Prism, located in the British Museum, and covers three of Sennacherib’s campaigns as well as construction in the Assyrian capital city of Ninevah.

Sennacherib, the great king, the powerful king, king of the world, King of Assyria, king of the four quarters of the world; the watchful shepherd, the favorite of the great gods, who protects the truth, who loves the right, who comes to the help of and lends assistance to the weak, who frequents the sanctuaries; the perfect hero, the man of war, chief of all princes; the great one, who consumes the rebellious, who strikes the hostile with lightning — Ashur, the great mountain, has granted me a kingdom without rival, and he has made my arms prevail over all who dwell in princely halls. From the Upper Sea of the Setting Sun to the Lower Sea of the Rising Sun he has made submissive to me the Black-headed People, and the rebellious princes have shunned battle with me, abandoned their homes, and like a falcon in the clefts they have fled alone to an inaccessible place.

In my first campaign, in the vicinity of Kish, I brought about the overthrow of Merodachbaladan, King of Karduniash, together with the troops of Elam, his allies. In the midst of that battle he abandoned his camp, and saved his life by fleeing alone. My hands captured the chariots, horses, freight wagons (and) mules which he had left behind in the onset of battle. I entered his palace, which is in Babylon, with joy and opened his treasure house; gold and silver, vessels of gold and silver, precious stones of every description, possessions, and goods, without number, a heavy tribute, his palace women, his ministers, his male and female musicians, all the artisans, as many as there were, his palace officials, I brought forth and reckoned as spoil. With the might of Ashur, my lord, I besieged, captured, and carried away the spoil of seventy-five of the large, walled cities of Kaldu and of four hundred and twenty of the smaller cities round about them. The Arabians, Arameans, and Chaldeans of Uruk, Nippur, Kish, Harsagkaiama, Kutha, and Sippara, together with the inhabitants of the cities who were rebellious I brought forth and reckoned as spoil. On my return, the Tumuna, the Rihihu, the Yadaqqu, the Ubudu, the Kipre, the Malahu, the Gurumu, the U-bu-lum, the Damunu, the Gambulu, the Hindaru, the Ru’ua, the Puqudu, the Hamranu, the Hagaranu, the Nabatu, the Litau, Arameans, who were rebellious, I conquered en masse. Two hundred and eight thousand people, small and great, male and female, horses and mules, asses, camels, cattle, and sheep, without number, a heavy spoil, I carried away to Assyria. During the course of my campaign I received from Nabu-bel-shanati, the prefect of Hararati, gold, silver, tall palms, asses, camels, cattle, and sheep, his rich present. The men of Hirimmu, a stubborn enemy, I brought low with my weapons, and a single one did not escape. Their corpses I hung on posts and placed them round the city. I reconquered that district, and for the gods of Assyria, my lords, I set aside for all time one steer, ten rams, ten measures of wine, twenty measures of dates, its first fruits.

In my second campaign, Ashur, my lord, gave me his support, and I marched to the country of the Kassites and of the Yasubigalli, who from time immemorial had not been submissive to the kings, my fathers. Through the high mountain forests, a rough country, I rode on horse, and I hauled up my chariot with ropes. The steepest places I climbed on foot like a wild ox. I besieged and captured Bit-Kilamzah, Hardishpi, and Bit-Kubatti, their large walled cities. I brought forth from their midst people, horses, mules, asses, cattle, and sheep, and reckoned them as spoil; and their smaller cities, which were without number, I destroyed, devastated, and reduced to plough-land. The tents, their dwelling-places, I burned with fire, and let them go up in flames. I returned and used the city Bit-Kilamzah as a fortress. I made its walls stronger than ever, and I settled therein the people of the countries captured by my hands. I brought down from the mountains the Kassites and Yasubigalli, and made them dwell in the cities Hardishpi and Bit-Kubatti. I placed them under the control of my military officer, the prefect of Arrapha. I had a tablet prepared, and I inscribed upon it my great victory which I had gained over them, and I set it up in the city. I turned about and took the road to the country of Ellipi. Before me Ispabara, their king, abandoned his strong cities, his treasure houses, and fled to a distant place. I swept over the whole of his broad land like a wind storm. Marubishti and Akkuddu, cities of his royal house, together with thirty-four smaller cities round about them, I besieged, captured, destroyed, devastated, and burned with fire. People, small and great, male and female, horses, mules, asses, camels, cattle, and sheep, without number, I carried away and I reduced him to nothing and cut down his territory. The cities Cicirtu and Kummahlum, large cities, together with the smaller cities round about them, the district Bit-Barru, to its whole extent, I cut away from his land and added to the territory of Assyria. I took the city Elenzash for a royal city and fortress for that district, and I changed its former name and called its name Kar-Sennacherib. I settled therein the people of the countries captured by my hands and I placed them under the control of my military officer, the prefect of Harhar, and I enlarged my territory. On my return, I received the heavy tribute of the far-off Medes, the mention of whose country no one among the kings, my fathers, had heard, and I made them submit to the yoke of my lordship.

In my third campaign I marched to the land of the Hittites. Luli (Elulaeos), King of Sidon, was overcome by the fear of the splendor of my lordship, and fled far away to the sea, and I subdued his land. Great Sidon, Little Sidon, Bit-Zitti, Sarepta, Mahalliba, Usha, Ekdippa, Akko, his large walled cities, stations for food and water, his garrisons, the might of the weapons of Ashur, my lord, overcame and they submitted to me. Tubalu (Ethobal) I placed over them on the royal throne, and my lordship’s tribute and taxes yearly without fail I imposed on him. Menahem of the city of Samsimuruna, Ethobal of Sidon, Abdiliti of Arvad, Urumtlki of Byblos, Mitinti of Ashdod, Buduilu of Beth-Ammon, Kammusunadbi of Moab, Malikrammu of Edom, kings of the West Land — all of them — brought rich presents, their heavy gifts, with merchandise, before me and kissed my feet. As for Cidqa, the King of Askelon, who had not submitted to my yoke, I took by force the gods of his father’s house, himself, his wife, his sons, his daughters, his brother, the seed of his father’s house, and carried them to Assyria. Sharruludari, the son of Rukibti, their former king, I placed over the people of Askelon, and I imposed on him the giving of taxes, a present for my lordship, and he became tributary to me. During the course of my campaign I besieged, captured, and carried away the spoil of Beth-Dagon, Joppa, Benibarqa, and Azuru, cities belonging to Cidqa, which had not at once submitted to me. The governors, chiefs, and people of Ekron, who had cast Padi, their king, who was under treaty and oath to Assyria, into chains of iron, and had handed him over to Hezekiah of Judah — in a hostile manner he had shut him up in a dungeon — became afraid.They summoned the kings of Egypt, the bowmen, chariots and horses of the King of Meluhha —innumerable forces, and they came to their help. In the vicinity of Eltekeh they arranged (their) battle array against me and forced a battle. Under the protection of Ashur, my lord, I fought with them and accomplished their defeat. The charioteers and the sons of the King of Egypt and the charioteers of the King of Meluhha I captured alive, with my hands, in battle. I besieged, captured, and carried away the spoil of Eltekeh and Timnath. I advanced to Ekron and I killed the governors and chiefs, who bad brought about rebellion, and I hung their corpses on poles round about the city. The inhabitants of the city who were in the opposition and riot I reckoned as spoil. The rest of them, who had nothing to do with the rebellion and disgraceful proceedings, who were not guilty, I ordered to be set free. Padi, their king, I brought forth from Jerusalem, and I placed him on the throne of lordship over them. My lordship’s tribute I imposed on him. But as for Hezekiah of Judah, who had not submitted to my yoke, forty-six of his strong walled cities and the smaller cities round about them, without number, by the battering of rams, and the attack of war-engines, by making breaches, by cutting through, and the use of axes, I besieged and captured. Two hundred thousand one hundred and fifty people, small and great, male and female, horses, mules, asses, camels, cattle, and sheep, without number, I brought forth from their midst and reckoned as spoil. (Hezekiah) himself I shut up like a caged bird in Jerusalem, his royal city. I threw up fortifications against him, and whoever came out of the gates of his city I punished. His cities, which I had plundered, I cut off from his land and gave to Mitinti, King of Ashdod, to Padi, King of Ekron, and to Cil-Bel, King of Gaza, and (thus) made his territory smaller. To the former taxes, paid yearly, tribute, a present for my lordship, I added and imposed on him. Hezekiah himself was overwhelmed by the fear of the brilliancy of my lordship, and the Arabians and faithful soldiers whom he had brought in to strengthen Jerusalem, his royal city, deserted him. Thirty talents of gold, eight hundred talents of silver, precious stones, guhli daggassi, large lapis lazuli, couches of ivory, thrones of elephant skin and ivory, ivory, ushu and urkarinu woods, of every kind, a heavy treasure, and his daughters, his palace women, male and female singers, to Nineveh, my lordship’s city, I caused to be brought after me, and he sent his ambassador to give tribute and to pay homage…

At that time, after I had completed the palace in Nineveh as a dwelling for my royalty, I adorned it with ornaments for the astonished gaze of all people. As for the Side-palace, which the kings, my predecessors, my forefathers, had built for the stowing away of the camp baggage, the stalling of horses, and the storing of all sorts of things, it had no foundation, its room was too small, and its construction was not artistic. In course of time, its platform foundation had become weak, its foundation had collapsed and its superstructure was in ruins. I tore that palace down completely. I took a large piece of ground from the swamp and vicinity of the city, in accordance with the plans of the architect, and added to it. I abandoned the site of the old palace, and on the ground in the swamp which I had reclaimed from the river bed I built up a terrace, and raised the top of it to a height of two hundred tibki. In a favorable month, on an auspicious day, with the co-operation of my clever architects, I built on that terrace, in the wisdom of my heart, a palace of pilu stone and cedar, in the Hittite style, and a splendid palace— as a dwelling for my lordship — in the Assyrian style, which far exceeded the former one in size and artistic effect. Large cedar trunks, such as grow on the snow-capped Mount Amanus, I used for their roofs. I bound the doors of liyari wood with straps of bright copper and hung them in their gateways. With white pilu-stone, such as is found in the Balata, I built splendid lamasse and shede, and stationed them on the right and left. For the rule of the Black-headed People, the storing of horses, mules, calves, asses, chariots, freight wagons, quivers, bows, arrows, all kinds of weapons for war, harness for horses and mules, which have great strength when yoked, I greatly enlarged its * * * space. That palace I built from its foundation to its roof and completed it. A tablet, the record of my name, I placed in it. For future days, whoever — among the kings, my sons, whom Ashur and Ishtar shall call to rule over the land and people — the prince may be when this palace becomes old and ruined, may he repair its damages, may he see the inscription, the record of my name, cleanse it with oil, offer sacrifices, and return it to its place; then Ashur and Ishtar will hear his prayer. Whoever alters my writing and name, may Ashur, the great lord, father of the gods, treat him as an enemy, and take scepter and throne from him and overthrow his rule!

Citation:

Robert Francis Harper, Assyrian and Babylonian Literature Selected Translations (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1901), 68-73, 79-80. Located on the Internet Archive:

https://archive.org/details/assyrianandbaby06harpgoog/page/n182

Discussion Questions:

1. How, in general, is Sennacherib portrayed in the first paragraph?
2. What common themes run through the military campaign paragraphs?
3. What does this document tell us about Mesopotamian kings and how they wished to be seen?

2. Penitential Prayer to Every God

Mesopotamian religion was polytheistic, and their pantheon contained numerous deities, each responsible for different aspects of life and the physical world. Mesopotamian people built temples for their gods and held processions and festivals in their honor in addition to prayers and offerings made on a daily basis. The selection below illustrates the importance of prayers to the gods as well as the relationship between gods and humans.

May the wrath of the heart of my god be pacified!
May the god who is unknown to me be pacified!
May the goddess who is unknown to me be pacified!
May the known and unknown god be pacified!
May the known and unknown goddess be pacified!
May the heart of my god be pacified!
May the heart of my goddess be pacified!
May the god or goddess known or unknown be pacified!
May the god who is angry with me be pacified!
May the goddess who is angry with me be pacified!
The sin which I have committed I know not.
The misdeed which I have committed I know not.
A gracious name may my god announce!
A gracious name may my goddess announce!
A gracious name may my known and unknown god announce!
A gracious name may my known and unknown goddess announce!
Pure food have I not eaten,
Clear water have I not drunk.
An offence against my god have I unwittingly committed.
A transgression against my goddess have I unwittingly done.
O lord, my sins are many, great are my iniquities!
My god, my sins are many, great are my iniquities!
My goddess, my sins are many, great are my iniquities!
Known or unknown god, my sins are many, great are my iniquities!
Known or unknown goddess, my sins are many, great are my iniquities!
The sin, which I have committed, I know not.
The iniquity, which I have done, I know not.
The offence, which I have committed, I know not.
The transgression I have done, I know not.
The lord, in the anger of his heart, hath looked upon me.
The god, in the wrath of his heart, hath visited me.
The goddess hath become angry with me, and hath grievously stricken me.
The known or unknown god hath straitened me.
The known or unknown goddess hath brought affliction upon me.
I sought for help, but no one taketh my hand.
I wept, but no one came to my side.
I utter cries, but no one hearkens to me.
I am afflicted, I am overcome, I do not look up.
Unto my merciful god I turn, I make supplication.
I kiss the feet of my goddess and [crawl before her]
To known and unknown god, I make supplication.
To known and unknown goddess, I make supplication.
O lord, look with favor upon me, receive my supplication!
O goddess, look with favor upon me, receive my supplication!
Known and unknown god
Known and unknown goddess
How long, my god
How long, my goddess, until thy face be turned toward me?
How long, known and unknown god, until the anger of thy heart be pacified?
How long, known and unknown goddess, until thy unfriendly heart be pacified?
Mankind is perverted and has no judgment.
Of all men who are alive, who knows anything?
They do not know whether they do good or evil.
O lord, do not cast aside thy servant!
He is cast into the mire; take his hand.
The sin which I have sinned, turn to mercy!
The iniquity which I have committed, let the wind carry away!
My many transgressions tear off like a garment!
My god, my sins are seven times seven; forgive my sins!
My goddess, my sins are seven times seven; forgive my sins!
Known and unknown god, my sins are seven times seven; forgive my sins!
Known and unknown goddess, my sins are seven times seven; forgive my sins!
Forgive my sins and I will humble myself before thee.

Citation:

Robert Francis Harper, Assyrian and Babylonian Literature Selected Translations (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1901), 436-438. Located on the Internet Archive:

https://archive.org/details/assyrianandbaby06harpgoog/page/n562

Discussion Questions:

1. Why do you think this prayer is dedicated to both known and unknown gods?
2. What kind of emotion are you getting from this prayer? Support your answer.
3. What do you think this prayer tells us about Mesopotamian gods and the people who worshiped them? Support your answer.

3. Great Hymn to Shamash

Shamash was the Mesopotamian god of sun and light, and is usually associated with the concept of justice, bringing light to the darkness of evil. The hymn presented below is dedicated to Shamash and evokes this idea of Shamash as the bringer of justice to humans. In tone and attitude, it is also a contrast to the previous document, the Penitential Prayer to Every God, and the two together demonstrate for us the complex feelings of the Mesopotamians towards their gods, and vice versa.

https://web.archive.org/web/20080213042616/http://www.mircea-eliade.com/from-primitives-to-zen/133.html

Discussion Questions:

1. How, in general, is the god Shamash portrayed? Support your answer.
2. What seems to be the tone or attitude of this hymn? Support your answer.
3. Contrast this hymn with the Penitential Prayer to Every God.

4. Mesopotamian Art

The link below will take you to the Louvre Museum in Paris, specifically to its Ancient Near East collection. There are five items to examine: “Statuette of a priest-king,” “Archaic writing tablets,” “Seated statue of a Mesopotamian prince,” “Perforated bas-relief decorated with banquet scenes,” and “King Ashurbanipal on his Chariot and Elamite Prisoners.” The items span thousands of years of Mesopotamian history and demonstrate the evolution of artwork and the ways in which art can serve political purposes.

https://www.louvre.fr/en/departments/near-eastern-antiquities/highlights?nrppage=50

Discussion Questions:

1. What does the “Statuette of a priest-king” tell us about the development of human society in Mesopotamia?
2. What do the “Archaic writing tablets” tell us about communication in Mesopotamia?
3. What does the “Seated statue of a Mesopotamian prince” show us about the connection between art and politics?
4. What is the artist of the “Perforated bas-relief decorated with banquet scenes” communicating through the portrayal of the human figures?
5. What does the “King Ashurbanipal on his Chariot and Elamite Prisoners” bas-relief show us about Mesopotamia art?

5. The Code of Hammurabi

Hammurabi was a Babylonian king who ruled from 1792 to 1750 BCE. Although his law code is not the first from this region, it is one of the best preserved and therefore one of the most well-known. A copy of the Code is carved into a stone stele that is currently on display in the Louvre Museum in Paris. The Code contains 282 separate laws, dealing with everything from criminal justice to building codes to divorce proceedings. The wide array of topics covered, in addition to the individual rules, gives us great insight into Mesopotamian society during this era.

1. If a man bring an accusation against a man, and charge him with a (capital) crime, but cannot prove it, he, the accuser, shall be put to death.

2. If a man charge a man with sorcery, and cannot prove it, he who is charged with sorcery shall go to the river and into the river he shall throw himself, and if the river overcome him his accuser shall take to himself his house (estate). If the river show that man to be innocent, and he come forth unharmed, he who charged him with sorcery shall be put to death. He who threw himself into the river shall take to himself the house of his accuser.

3. If a man, in a case (pending judgment), bear false witness, or do not establish the testimony that he has given, if that case be a case involving life, that man shall be put to death.

4. If a man (in a case) bear witness for grain or money (as a bribe), he shall himself bear the penalty imposed in that case.

5. If a judge pronounce a judgment, render a decision, deliver a verdict duly signed and sealed, and afterward alter his judgment, they shall call that judge to account for the alteration of the judgment which he had pronounced, and he shall pay twelvefold the penalty which was in said judgment; and, in the assembly, they shall expel him from his seat of judgment, and he shall not return, and with the judges in a case he shall not take his seat.

15. If a man aid a male or female slave of the palace, or a male or female slave of a freeman, to escape from the city gate, he shall be put to death.

16. If a man harbor in his house a male or female slave who has fled from the palace or from a freeman, and do not bring him (the slave) forth at the call of the commandant, the owner of that house shall be put to death.

17. If a man seize a male or female slave, a fugitive, in the field, and bring that (slave) back to his owner, the owner of the slave shall pay him two shekels of silver.

18. If that slave will not name his owner, he shall bring him to the palace, and they shall inquire into his antecedents, and they shall return him to his owner.

19. If he detain that slave in his house, and later the slave be found in his possession, that man shall be put to death.

20. If the slave escape from the hand of his captor, that man shall so declare, in the name of the god, to the owner of the slave, and shall go free.

25. If a fire break out in a man’s house, and a man who goes to extinguish it cast his eye on the property of the owner of the house and take the property of the owner of the house, that man shall be thrown into that fire.

26. If either an officer or a constable, who is ordered to go on an errand of the king, do not go, but hire a substitute, and dispatch him in his stead, that officer or constable shall be put to death; his hired substitute shall take to himself his (the officer’s) house.

34. If the governor or a magistrate take the property of an officer, plunder an officer, let an officer for hire, present an officer in a judgment to a man of influence, take the gift which the king has given to an officer, that governor or magistrate shall be put to death.

40. A woman, merchant, or other property-holder may sell field, garden, or house. The purchaser shall conduct the business of the field, garden, or house which he has purchased.

53. If a man neglect to strengthen his dyke and do not strengthen it, and a break be made in his dyke and the water carry away the farm-land, the man in whose dyke the break has been made shall restore the grain which he has caused to be lost.

54. If he be not able to restore the grain, they shall sell him and his goods, and the farmers whose grain the water has carried away shall share (the results of the sale).

55. If a man open his canal for irrigation and neglect it, and the water carry away an adjacent field, he shall measure out grain on the basis of the adjacent fields.

108. If a wine-seller do not receive grain as the price of drink, but if she receive money by the great stone, or make the measure for drink smaller than the measure for corn, they shall call that wine-seller to account, and they shall throw her into the water.

109. If outlaws collect in the house of a wine-seller, and she do not arrest these outlaws and bring them to the palace, that wine-seller shall be put to death.

110. If a votary, who is not living in a convent, open a wine-shop or enter a wine-shop for a drink, they shall burn that woman.

127. If a man point the finger at a votary or the wife of another and cannot justify it, they shall drag that man before the judges and they shall brand his forehead.

128. If a man take a wife and do not arrange with her the (proper) contracts, that woman is not a (legal) wife.

129. If the wife of a man be taken in lying with another man, they shall bind them and throw them into the water. If the husband of the woman would save his wife, or if the king would save his male servant (he may).

130. If a man force the (betrothed) wife of another who has not known a male and is living in her father’s house, and he lie in her bosom and they take him, that man shall be put to death and that woman shall go free.

131. If a man accuse his wife and she has not been taken in lying with another man, she shall take an oath in the name of the god and she shall return to her house.

132. If the finger have been pointed at the wife of a man because of another man, and she have not been taken in lying with another man, for her husband’s sake she shall throw herself into the river.

133. If a man be captured and there be maintenance in his house and his wife go out of her house, she shall protect her body and she shall not enter into another house.

133a. (If) that woman do not protect her body and enter into another house, they shall call that woman to account and they shall throw her into the water.

134. If a man be captured and there be no maintenance in his house, and his wife enter into another house, that woman has no blame.

135. If a man be captured and there be no maintenance in his house, and his wife openly enter into another house and bear children; if later her husband return and arrive in his city, that woman shall return to her husband (and) the children shall go to their father.

136. If a man desert his city and flee, and afterwards his wife enter into another house; if that man return and would take his wife, the wife of the fugitive shall not return to her husband, because he hated his city and fled.

141. If the wife of a man who is living in his house set her face to go out and play the part of a fool, neglect her house, belittle her husband, they shall call her to account; if her husband say “I have put her away,” he shall let her go. On her departure nothing shall be given to her for her divorce. If her husband say: “I have not put her away,” her husband may take another woman. The first woman shall dwell in the house of her husband as a maid-servant.

142. If a woman hate her husband, and say: “Thou shalt not have me,” they shall inquire into her antecedents for her defects, and if she have been a careful mistress and be without reproach, and her husband have been going about and greatly belittling her, that woman has no blame-She shall receive her dowry and shall go to her father’s house.

195. If a son strike his father, they shall cut off his fingers.

196. If a man destroy the eye of a man (gentleman), they shall destroy his eye.

197. If one break a man’s bone, they shall break his bone.

198. If one destroy the eye of a freeman or break the bone of a freeman, he shall pay 1 mana of silver.

199. If one destroy the eye of a man’s slave, or break a bone of a man’s slave, he shall pay one-half his price.

200. If a man knock out a tooth of a man of his own rank, they shall knock out his tooth.

201. If one knock out the tooth of a freeman, he shall pay one-third mana of silver.

202. If a man strike the person of a man— i.e. commit an assault—who is his superior, he shall receive 60 strokes with an ox-tail whip in public.

203. If a man strike another man of his own rank, he shall pay 1 mana of silver.

204. If a freeman strike a freeman, he shall pay 10 shekels of silver.

205. If a man’s slave strike a man’s son, they shall cut off his ear.

209. If a man strike a man’s daughter and bring about a miscarriage, he shall pay 10 shekels of silver for her miscarriage.

210. If that woman die, they shall put his daughter to death.

211. If, through a stroke, he bring about a miscarriage to the daughter of a freeman, he shall pay 5 shekels of silver.

212. If that woman die, he shall pay one-half mana of silver.

213. If he strike the female slave of a man and bring about a miscarriage, he shall pay 2 shekels of silver.

214. If that female slave die, he shall pay one-third mana of silver.

229. If a builder build a house for a man and do not make its construction firm, and the house which he has built collapse and cause the death of the owner of the house, that builder shall be put to death.

230. If it cause the death of a son of the owner of the house, they shall put to death a son of that builder.

231. If it cause the death of a slave of the owner of the house, he shall give to the owner of the house a slave of equal value.

232. If it destroy property, he shall restore whatever is destroyed, and because he did not make the house which he built firm and it collapsed, he shall rebuild the house which collapsed from his own property (i.e., at his own expense).

233. If a builder build a house for a man and do not make its construction meet the requirements and a wall fall in, that builder shall strengthen that wall at his own expense.

Citation:

Percy Handcock, The Code of Hammurabi (New York: The MacMillan Company, 1920), 9, 11-12, 14, 16, 19, 22-24, 33-36. Located on the Internet Archive:

https://archive.org/details/TheCodeOfHammurabi_201903/page/n13

Discussion Questions:

1. Why do you think death is the penalty for a number of crimes contained in this list?
2. What does this law code tell us about gender relations in Mesopotamia? Support your answer.
3. What does this law code tell us about social class in Mesopotamia? Support your answer.

6. Egypt-Engineering an Empire

The documentary below comes from a series once run on the History Channel called Engineering an Empire. This episode, focusing on ancient Egypt, covers some of the most impressive building projects in history, including the Great Pyramid of Giza and the royal palace of Hatshepsut. It also examines projects that didn’t stand the test of time such as Ahkenaten’s new capital city. The file is 2 hours and 20 minutes long, but you only need watch the first hour and a half.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YGQYDl2HJpc

Discussion Questions:

1. What role, both positive and negative, did the Nile River play in the early development of Egyptian civilization?
2. What was unique about Djoser’s burial site compared to previous Egyptian kings?
3. How did the materials for Djoser’s pyramid get to the construction site?
4. What problems did Snefru face in his attempt to build a smooth-sided pyramid?
5. What do the building projects of Sesotris III tell us about Egypt during the Middle Kingdom?
6. What purpose did many of Hatshepsut’s building projects serve?
7. In what ways did Ahkenaten disrupt traditional Egyptian life?
8. Taking the documentary as a whole, what do we learn about Egyptian society and culture from these examples of massive architectural projects?

7. Ancient History Encyclopedia-The Myth of Osiris and Isis

The following text comes from the Ancient History Encyclopedia, a website that is both scholarly and accessible to a general audience. Here we have Joshua J. Mark, who has taught a variety of subjects at the college level, including history, presenting us the myth of Osiris, one of the best known Egyptian gods. The myth of Osiris has always been a popular one, and it illustrates some of the most important principles of Egyptian life and religion.

https://www.ancient.eu/osiris/

Discussion Questions:

1. How does the Osiris myth tie in to some of the important values of Egyptian culture?
2. Why is Osiris associated with the Nile River?
3. Osiris was worshipped for thousands of years; what do you think made this story so popular that it would last that long?

8. Ancient History Encyclopedia-Hatshepsut

Hatshepsut was a successful New Kingdom pharaoh whose story is all the more fascinating due to the fact that she was a woman and her legacy was nearly erased by her stepson Thutmose III when he succeeded her as pharaoh. The article below, from the Ancient History Encyclopedia, details Hatshepsut’s rise to power, her triumphs as ruler of Egypt, and her death and attempt to whitewash her memory and achievements. 

https://www.ancient.eu/hatshepsut/

Discussion Questions:

1. Why is Hatshepsut’s reign both controversial and celebrated?
2. What is significant about Hatshepsut having herself depicted as a male ruler in statues?
3. What steps did Hatshepsut take to solidify her position as pharaoh?
4. What Hatshepsut accomplish as pharaoh, and what does this say about her rule?

9. PBS By the Rivers of Babylon

The following documentary is the first in a three part series exploring the history and development of the people of Israel and their faith. By the Rivers of Babylon covers the creation of the Hebrew Bible by those taken captive by the Neo-Babylonians after the conquest of Judah in the early 6th century BCE. The documentary explores the purpose of the book and the meaning behind some of the most famous stories contained therein, such as the story of David and Goliath. 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T1MQmAEIFMA

Discussion Questions:

1. What was the purpose behind writing the Hebrew Bible?
2. What is the significance behind the story of young Abraham and his father’s idol shop?
3. What is one of the “burdens of monotheism”?
4. What does Rabbi David Wolpe mean when he says “But what is central about the story is not that it is factual, but that it is true”?
5. What is the “revolution in the Ten Commandments”?
6. What is the larger meaning of the story of David and Goliath?
7. What is significant about the story of David and Bathsheba?
8. What did King Josiah do to establish monotheism among his people?
9. What is the main message of the social prophets?

10. Ancient History Encyclopedia-King David

The following document comes from the Ancient History Encyclopedia, this time from John S. Knox, who holds a PhD in Theology and Religion and teaches at Liberty University. The article tells the story of King David, beginning with the traditional view of the figure that many people are familiar with: being chosen by God to be king, being invited into the house of current king Saul, the battle with Goliath. It also delves into other stories about David that don’t paint him in quite so positive a light: the affair with Bathsheba, the rape of his daughter Tamar, and the revolt of his son Adonijah. The final section of this article covers some of the archaeological evidence of David’s existence. 

https://www.ancient.eu/King_David/

Discussion Questions:

1. What does the story of David and King Saul tell us about David?
2. What problems did David run into as King?
3. What archeological evidence exists that indicates King David was a real figure?
4. Taking this article as a whole what do we learn about King David?