accent

a difference in the pronunciation of words within a language

acculturation

when a dominant culture is present and exerts influence but minority cultural features are still retained

acid rain

a form of precipitation that is highly acidic and results from the emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide

agglomeration

a clustering of economic activity, such as when similar industries locate near one another

agnostic

the belief that the existence of God/gods cannot be proven

agribusiness

a company connected with the production of food

Agricultural Revolution

the transition from hunting and gathering to the domestication of plants and animals

agriculture

the science, art, and practice of cultivating plants and livestock

animism

the belief that objects, people, and creatures all possess a divine essence

antecedent boundary

a boundary that was created before modern human settlement occurred

arithmetic density

the number of people per unit area

assimilation

the process by which a minority group adopts the values and traits of a more dominant cultural group

atheist

a lack of belief in God/gods

autocracy

a form of government where power is held by a single ruler

balkanization

the process of a state breaking up into a smaller independent units, which may be hostile toward one another

bid-rent theory

the idea that the price and demand for real estate decreases as the distance from the city center increases

bounds

general boundary descriptions that utilize local landmarks or physical geographic features

branch

a large division within a religion

break-of-bulk point

a location where cargo arriving in bulk is broken up into smaller units to transport elsewhere

bulk-gaining industry

an economic activity where the finished product weighs more than the inputs

bulk-reducing industry

an economic activity where the inputs, or raw materials, weigh more than the finished product

carrying capacity

the maximum population size that can be sustained by an area based on the resources available

cartography

the art and science of map-making

central business district

the center of a city and the focal point for the exchange of goods and services

centrifugal force

a force that pushes people apart within a country and threatens national unity

centripetal force

a force that unifies people within a state

chain migration

where migrants from one area follow the path of other migrants from the same area, much like links in a chain

city-state

a sovereign city that controls the surrounding territory

colony

a territory that is ruled by another state

commercial agriculture

a form of agriculture where crops are grown primarily for sale off the farm

compact state

a shape of a state where the distance from the center to any point on the boundary is roughly the same

concentration

the spread of a particular feature over space

Concentric Zone Model

a model of the internal structure of a city where zones of businesses and residences are arranged in concentric rings outward from the CBD

contagious diffusion

the rapid and expanding spread of a cultural feature from person to person

cottage industry

a home-based manufacturing activity, such as weaving

crude birth rate

or CBR, the total number of live births in a year for every 1,000 people

crude death rate

or CDR, the total number of deaths in a year for every 1,000 people

cultural relativism

the idea that a person's values and beliefs are a product of a unique cultural tradition and should not be judged based on others' views or practices

culture

the social behaviors and beliefs as well as material forms found in human societies

democracy

a form of government where people have the right to select their leaders

Demographic Transition Model

or DTM, a model of how a country's population structure and growth changes over time

denomination

a subgroup of a religion within a branch that has a common tradition and typically has a single administrative body

density

the frequency of a particular feature within a given area

dependency ratio

the number of people who are too young or too old to work compared to the number of people in their productive years

dependency theory

a theory of uneven development that holds that resources generally flow from peripheral countries to core countries

devolution

when a central government delegates additional powers to a sub-national entity

dialect

a particular regional speech pattern found within a language

diaspora

a group of people who are living outside of their geographic homeland

distance decay

the notion that the likelihood of interaction between two things decreases as their distance apart increases

doubling time

the amount of time a population takes to double in size

economies of scale

the cost advantage gained by industries as they grow in scale and are able to decrease the cost to produce each unit

edge cities

an urban area with businesses, shopping, and entertainment outside of the traditional CBD

elongated state

a state that is long and narrow

emigration

refers to migration from a location

endangered language

a language at risk of becoming extinct

environmental determinism

the view that cultural features and societal developments are determined by environmental conditions

Epidemiological Transition Model

or epidemiological transition, describes changing disease patterns and causes of death that correspond with broader societal and population changes

ethnic cleansing

the forced removal or killing of an ethnic group in order to create a more ethnically homogenous region

ethnic religion

a belief system primarily associated with a particular ethnic group and generally tied to a particular geographic area

ethnicity

a shared identity with a group of people who have a common history or cultural tradition

ethnocentrism

evaluating or judging another culture's traits based on one's own cultural system

expansion diffusion

the spread of culture through an expansive process, growing larger as it spreads but remaining in its original location

extinct language

a language with no remaining speakers

exurb

an area of lower density housing outside the central city and surrounding suburbs where people live and commute to the central city for work

fascism

a political system characterized by an extreme form of nationalism and the rule by a dictator

federal state

a form of government where the power resides in units of local government, such as self-governing territories or states.

folk culture

cultural features practiced by small, homogeneous groups that generally live in rural, more isolated areas

forced migration

the involuntary movement of people from one place to another

formal region

an area that has one or more common characteristics

fragmented state

a state that is fragmented into multiple, noncontiguous parts

functional region

an area organized around a particular node or focal point

fundamentalism

a form of a religion that is characterized by a strict, literal interpretation of scripture and a return to the religion's core principles

Gender Inequality Index

or GII, a measure of gender disparity created by the United Nations that uses reproductive health, empowerment, and labor market participation to measure the loss of achievement in a country due to gender inequality

gentrification

the process by which the character of a neighborhood changes as more affluent residents and businesses move in

geographic information system

a computer system that can capture, store, query, analyze, and display geographic data, also known as GIS and sometimes referred to a geographic information science

gerrymandering

a political tactic used to create voting districts that give an advantage to one political party

globalization

the increasing interconnectedness and integration of the countries of the world resulting from advances in communication and transportation technology

Green Revolution

agricultural innovations that resulted from the use of new technologies in the 1950s and 1960s that significantly increased global agricultural production

gross domestic product

or GDP, a measure of the amounts of goods and services produced within a country in a given time period

gross national income

or GNI, the total income earned by residents of a country

gross national product

the value of all goods and services produced by a country and the value of all of the overseas investments by its residents and businesses

hierarchical diffusion

the expansive spread of a cultural feature from a person of influence or authority to the wider population

Human Development Index

or HDI, a composite statistic created by the United Nations to measure a country's level of development

human geography

the study of humans and their interaction with the earth

immigration

migration to a location

Industrial Revolution

a period of transition to new manufacturing processes beginning in the United Kingdom from the mid-1700s to the mid-1800s

infant mortality rate

or IMR, the annual number of deaths of infants under 1 year of age, compared with total live births

intensive subsistence agriculture

a form of subsistence agriculture where farmers cultivate a small area of land using additional effort

internal boundary

a boundary within a state

internal migration

a permanent move within the same country

international migration

movement from one country to another

interregional migration

movement from one region to another

intervening opportunity

the presence of an opportunity between a migrant's home site and their intended destination

intraregional migration

migration within one region

just-in-time delivery

a system of producing goods only as needed in order to reduce inventory and align with the buyer's needs

language branch

a collection of languages within a language family that are related through a common ancestral language that existed several thousands of years ago

language families

a large group of languages that were united by a common ancestral language before recorded history

language group

a collection of languages that share a common origin in the relatively recent past

languages

a structured system for communication

latitude

lines that circle the globe running east-west parallel to the equator

life expectancy

the average number of years a newborn infant can expect to live

lingua franca

a common language that is used as a means of communication between speakers of different native languages, often for the purposes of trade or diplomacy

logogram

a written character that represents a word or phrase

long lot

long, narrow divisions of land usually lined up along a waterway

longitude

lines that run vertically north-south around the globe intersecting at the poles

megacity

a city with a population of over 10 million people

megalopolis

a group of two or more overlapping metropolitan areas

metes

a boundary defined by a specific distance between two points as well as an orientation and direction

Metropolitan Statistical Area

a United States Census designation, defined as an urban area, the county within which it is located, and surrounding counties where a high percentage of the residents commute to the central county for work

microfinance

financial services that target individuals and small businesses on a smaller scale than traditional financial institutions

migration

a permanent move to a new location

missionary

a member of a religious group who helps diffuse and promote their religion in an area

monoculture

a form of farming where a single crop is grown

monotheistic

the belief in one God

multiculturalism

the presence of multiple, distinct cultural identities

multiple nuclei model

a model of internal city structure where clusters of development occur in nodes or separate nuclei outside of the CBD

nation

a group of people with a strong cultural and ethnic identity

nation-state

an independent state that has a homogenous cultural and ethnic identity

nationality

a personal allegiance to a particular country

natural increase rate

or NIR, the percentage by which a population grows in a year

natural resources

materials or substances drawn from nature that are useful to humans

neocolonialism

a form of control using economic influence or indirect political control rather than direct military or political authority

neoliberalism

an ideology that promotes free market competition

nomadic pastoralism

a form of subsistence agriculture where domesticated animals are herded in search of fresh pastures for the animals to graze (also known as pastoral nomadism)

non-renewable resource

a natural resource that cannot be replaced by natural means as fast as it is consumed

nonpoint source pollution

refers to the pollution of water or air that does not originate from a single source

nontheistic

not having a belief in God/gods

oligarchy

a form of government where the power structure rests with a small group of people

outsourcing

contracting out a portion of a business to another party, which might be located in another country

pattern

the arrangement of a particular feature within an area

perforated state

a state that completely surrounds another state

physical geography

the study of Earth's natural environment

physiological density

the number of people per unit of arable land

pidgin language

a simplified form of communication that develops as a means of interaction between speakers of different native languages

plantation agriculture

a form of commercial agriculture where large farms specialize in the production of one or two crops

point source pollution

a single discrete source of pollution

polytheistic

the belief in many gods

popular culture

broad cultural features found dominant, heterogeneous societies

population pyramid

a graphical presentation of a country’s population by age and gender groups

possibilism

the idea that the physical environment places some limits on human activity, but that people can adapt and adjust to their environment

primary sector

an economic activity that involves directly getting raw materials from the natural environment

primate city

a city that is the largest city in a country, is more than twice as populous as the next largest city, and is emblematic of the national culture

projection

a way to flatten the globe's surface onto a flat surface to create a map

prorupted state

a shape of a state that has an extension that protrudes from its main territory

proto-language

a theorized ancestral language from which a group of related languages is believed to have evolved

protruded state

see prorupted state

pull factors

reasons to migrate to a particular location

push factors

reasons that push people to move from their current location

quaternary sector

an economic activity that relates to information technology, such as computing or research

quinary sector

an economic activity related to making high level decisions

race

identity with a group of people who have a shared biological heritage

racism

the belief that race corresponds with differences in both physical appearance and behavioral traits and the belief that one race is superior over another

rank-size rule

the observation that the nth largest city in a country has 1/n the population of the largest country

redlining

a policy aimed at denying services to residents of particular ethnic or racial communities

refugee

a person who has been forced to cross national boundaries and cannot return home safely

regions

areas that are broadly divided based on their physical or human characteristics

relic boundary

a boundary that no longer functions but is still apparent on the landscape

relocation diffusion

diffusion of culture through the physical movement of people from one place to another

renewable resource

a natural resource that is able to be replenished during a human time scale

scale

the ratio of the distance on a map to the corresponding distance on Earth's surface

Second Agricultural Revolution

the increases in agricultural production that coincided with the innovations created during the Industrial Revolution

secondary sector

an economic activity that uses a raw material to create a finished good

sect

a division within a religion that characterizes a smaller group that has split from an established denomination

sector model

a model of city structure where zones of development extend out from the CBD in wedges

secularism

the principle that promotes the separation of religion from government, politics, and public affairs

seed agriculture

the reproduction of plants through the use of seeds

self-determination

the right of a group of people to govern themselves

shatter belt

a region caught between more powerful states (can also be spelled shatterbelt)

site

the location of a settlement on Earth and its physical characteristics

situation

the location of a place relative to other places and geographic features

sovereignty

the authority of a state to govern itself within a territory

state

an organized territory led by a government that has control over its domestic and foreign interests

stateless nation

an ethnic group that does not govern its own state and is not the majority population of any nation-state

stimulus diffusion

the spread of an idea or principle rather than the original cultural feature or product

subsequent boundary

a boundary established after human settlement

subsistence agriculture

a form of agriculture where a farmer grows crops primarily to feed themselves and their families

superimposed boundary

a boundary created by an outside power that ignores underlying cultural differences

supranational organization

an organization or political entity that is comprised of a number of different member states and whose administrative structure extends across multiple national boundaries

sustainability

the ability of a natural system to be productive indefinitely

syncretism

the blending of cultural features to form new traits

taboo

a social or cultural prohibition or restriction that designates certain behaviors, actions, or subjects as forbidden or unacceptable within a particular society or group

terrorism

the use of violence to achieve political goals

tertiary sector

an economic activity that provides a service to businesses and consumers

time-space compression

the idea that the relative distance between spaces has been reduced due to advances in transportation and communication technologies

total fertility rate

or TFR, the average number of children a woman will have throughout her childbearing years (defined as ages 15-49)

transition zone

an area marked by a gradual spatial change

unitary state

a form of government where a central government entity has all or most of the governing power

urban area

an area that includes a city and its surrounding, developed region

urban decentralization

the process of businesses, workers, and consumers, moving away from the central business district

urban heat island effect

a phenomenon that refers to localized and elevated temperatures within urban areas compared to their surrounding rural regions

urban sprawl

the unrestricted growth of an urban area over a large tract of land, also known as sprawl or suburban sprawl

urbanization

the shifting of population from rural areas to urban areas

vegetative planting

the reproduction of plants using a fragment of the parent plant

vernacular region

a region that is perceived to exist

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