by Megan Murray and Emily Romero

Despite the growing number of Latine students enrolled in public schools across the country, there exists a dearth of research about the schooling experiences of Latine students with disabilities. Furthermore, much of the research that exists places Latine students and African American students in the same category to not complicate the white/black binary that exists in much of the literature. Not only is there frequent homogenization of Latine students with other racial groups, but the research that does exist largely addresses Latine students through the lens of multilingual learning. Much of the existing literature on Latine students with disabilities focuses on this intersection of language and ability, rather than focusing on the specific disability itself. Positioning Latine students through a purely multilingual lens means that there are many experiences not being represented or studied.

There is an urgent need to address the schooling experiences of Latine students with disabilities. As the number of students who identify as Latine increases in public schools, so will the number of students who also identify as having a disability. Currently, 27.18% of Latine students have been identified as having a disability (Office of Special Education Programs, 2020).  The research and resources included in the guide below seek to address the many different factors influencing the schooling experiences of Latine students with disabilities. While the included literature creates a makeshift foundation, there is a pressing need for further research to better understand the specific schooling experiences of students living at the intersection of race, ability, and language.

Part I: Annotated Bibliography

Dávila, B. (2014). Critical race theory, disability microaggressions and Latina/o student experiences in special education. Race Ethnicity and Education, 18(4), 443–468. https://doi.org/10.1080/13613324.2014.885422

This article investigates the experiences of Latine high school students who attend a “learning center.” Learning centers offer students Individualized Learning Education (IEP) plans extra time for direct support with their goals and assignments in other classes. Through extensive observations and interviews with different stakeholders, researchers found that the educators in these learning centers were committing egregious microaggressions. These microaggressions materialized in the form of lowered expectations, disregarded student efforts, and bullying. Student responses to these microaggressions took the form of questioning authority, silently internalizing, and denying IEP services. The documented words and actions by the teachers illustrated that the microaggressions impacted more than just the targeted student, but all students in the space. Further research is needed to explore the evaluation processes and accountability measures that these teachers were subjected to. Without regulation or evaluation, the teachers in the study would likely continue to commit microaggressions. Teachers need to check their biases, guide students, and hold all students to the highest expectations.

Ferlis, E., & Xu, Y. (2016). Prereferral Process with Latino English Language Learners with Specific Learning Disabilities: Perceptions of English-as-a-Second-Language Teachers. International Journal of Multicultural Education, 18(3), 22 https://doi.org/10.18251/ijme.v18i3.1113

This study sought to explore how four English as Second Language (ESL) teachers servicing elementary, middle, and high school students engaged with the pre-referral IEP process. The educators who participated in this study engaged in the Response to Intervention (RTI) framework before the beginning of the IEP referral process. Due to this early RTI work, they believed that the student automatically should qualify for a Specific Learning Disability (SLD) referral. Despite these efforts, findings from these studies indicated that teachers faced multiple barriers to the referral process due to perceived parental school system pushbacks based on beliefs about how ESL students should be tested. Teachers described being told by special education teams that ESL students should be given time to learn English and that administering assessments in students’ native language was costly. Furthermore, the teachers’ attitude toward parental pushback was negative, and the administrators within the district seemed to uphold racist ideologies based on their reluctance to administer testing in students’ native languages. This article sheds light on the need for a more rigorous process about how and when ESL students should be referred for special education assessments and services. Furthermore, there is a desperate need for professional development training to help guide educators in understanding the difference between language acquisition and potential learning disorders.

Gage, N. A., Katsiyannis, A., Carrero, K. M., Miller, R., & Pico, D. (2021, November). Exploring Disproportionate Discipline for Latinx Students With and Without Disabilities: A National Analysis. Behavioral Disorders, 47(1), 3-13. https://doi.org/10.1177/0198742920961356

This article explores one of the most significant aspects of the schooling experiences for Latine students with disabilities – disciplinary practices. The strength of the article comes from the fact that it is one of the few articles that does not homogenize the experiences of Black students with Latine students.  Researchers utilized data that the Office of Civil Rights (OCR) gathered from 95,000 elementary, middle, and high schools across the country to explore the breadth of exclusionary practices for Latine students. The study finds that, as predicted, disciplinary practices play a significant role in the schooling experience of Latine students with disabilities. Disciplinary rates and exclusionary practices are far more prevalent for Latine students with disabilities than their White counterparts. That being said, Latine rates of exclusionary practices are lower than their Black peers. A critical question and point to be made regarding this research is the consideration of how subjective disciplinary/exclusionary practices are. Further research is also needed to understand how the disciplinary data disaggregates across different groups that are included within the Latine population (i.e., Puerto Ricans, Dominicans, etc.).

Juarez, S. W., Chaparro, G., Rios-Aguilar, C., & Guarneros, N. (2023). Parental Expectations of Postsecondary Outcomes for Diverse Students with Learning Disabilities: A Funds of Knowledge and Social Capital Approach to Transition Planning. Journal of Latinos and Education, 22(1), 41–56. https://doi.org/10.1080/15348431.2019.1689136

A key element of high school students’ IEPs is the Individualized Transition Plan (ITP) process. Using data from both The National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 and the Latino/Hispanic Household Survey, parental experiences within the ITP process were explored. Researchers found that many of the ITPs did not include parent input and did not meet the requirements of IDEA criteria. Students and parents both expressed the desire to engage in higher education, but educators were found to combat this request with doubts instead of actionable steps. Further, a significant barrier for families was the IEP meeting itself. Latine parents’ knowledge of the IEP process, the jargon used, and access to critical documents ahead of time influenced family impact. The framework used in this study failed to acknowledge the abundance of social capital and knowledge that parents possess. The framework was instead used to suggest how educators could increase the social capital and resources for participating parents. Educators must do the work of recognizing both the need for resources and the already acquired resources and social capital held by Latine parents.

Morgan, P. L., Woods, A. D., Wang, Y., Farkas, G., Hillemeier, M. M., & Mitchell, C. (2023). Which Students With Disabilities are Placed Primarily Outside of U.S. Elementary School General Education Classrooms? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 56(3), 180-192. https://doi.org/10.1177/00222194221094019

A vital factor influencing the educational experiences of Latine students with disabilities is the educational placement that they are given. Using data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, researchers were able to identify that Latine and Black students with disabilities were more likely to be placed out of the classroom compared to their White counterparts. The study’s exploration of the reason for the disproportionate placement of Latine students outside of the classroom was attributed not to bias, as was hypothesized in many other studies. Instead, the authors cite early academic challenges and behavioral manifestations as reasons for more restrictive placement. While the authors attributed the disproportionate placements to early struggles, further research needs to be conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of measuring early academic achievement and behavior as it relates to Latine students. Additionally, it will be vital to spend time analyzing how compounding factors (i.e., economic status, access to resources) impact early predictive scores.

Robertson, L. M., Harding, M. S., & Morrison, G. M. (1998, August). A Comparison of Risk and Resilience Indicators Among Latino/a Students: Differences Between Students Identified as At-Risk, Learning Disabled, Speech Impaired and Not At-Risk. Education and Treatment of Children, 21(3), 333-353. https://www.jstor.org/stable/42940511

This article investigates fifth and sixth-grade Latine students’ experiences of self-concept at school. The experiences of those already diagnosed with a disability are compared to other students who are at-risk, speech-impaired, and not at risk for behavior. Using both teacher and student-facing questionnaires, the research team worked to understand risks associated with each group. Students with disabilities were reported to have the most inferior social skills by teachers. Interestingly, students reported a different narrative that projected a positive peer concept. The authors theorize this contrasting narrative, suggesting that Latine students with disabilities conflate their sense of peer perception as a compensatory means for learning struggles. While this data explores self-concept, there are some limitations. The authors of this study focused on resilience factors in those who were at risk, when in fact, there is a compelling argument to be made about the resilience factors that Latine students with disabilities have. Further research will need to be conducted to address this gap.

Hughes, M. T., Valle-Riestra, D. M., & Arguelles, M. E. (2002). Experiences of Latino families with their child’s special education program. Multicultural Perspectives, 4(1), 11-17. https://umbrella.lib.umb.edu/permalink/01MA_UMB/j9evc/cdi_informaworld_taylorfrancis_310_1207_S15327892MCP0401_3

Latine students do not move through the special education process alone – their families play a vital role in ensuring academic success. Through the use of both questionnaires and interviews, researchers explored family satisfaction levels of students who attended a school where half to three-fourths of the staff (including the principal) identified as Latine. The data collected painted a picture of overall satisfaction with the special education services their child received. One quarter of respondents, however, raised concerns about their child not receiving enough specialized services. While this data reflects positively for the school, caution should be taken when thinking about the experiences of Latine students with disabilities in schools where there is not as much Latine representation. The school in this survey was taking great lengths to not only culturally affirm but build relationships with families. Unfortunately, that is not the case at all schools serving Latine students. While this is a positive example of schooling experience, the context must be kept at the forefront of the discussion.

Turnbull, A. P., Blue-Banning, M., & Pereira, L. (2000, April). Successful Friendships of Hispanic Children and Youth With Disabilities: An Exploratory Study. Mental Retardation, 38(2), 138-153. https://umbrella.lib.umb.edu/permalink/01MA_UMB/j9evc/cdi_proquest_miscellaneous_71103030

Not only is self-concept a vital part of schooling experiences for Latine students with disabilities, but so are friendships. This study focuses on friendship and the type of support that students can receive from friendships. Using a Participatory Action Research approach, researchers conducted and analyzed interviews of both individuals and groups. They found that over half of the comments communicated favorable results when discussing companionship (simply, having fun together). In addition to companionship, information-giving, and emotional support were also explored. The comments revealed that there was free giving and receiving between students with disabilities and their peers. While this research and a few others focus on relationships/interactions between students with disabilities and their non-disabled peers, further research should be conducted about peer relationships between students who both have disabilities. Additionally, further research should work to explore how different types of disabilities (i.e., intellectual, physical, emotional) fit into this model of friendship and support.

Part II: Popular Sources

Cohen, R. (2016, October 21). Going To School – Ir a la Escuela – FULL MOVIE. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iV_riKQPtQk

This documentary focuses on the educational experiences of three students with disabilities in Los Angeles’ inclusion classrooms. The power of this documentary truly comes in bearing witness to the parents and the lengths that they took to advocate for their students’ education. The film exposes the very real challenges that Latine students with disabilities face, and the incredible strength they use to navigate those challenges on a daily basis.

Going to School: Ir a la Escuela. YouTube, uploaded by Richard Cohen Films. October 21st, 2016.

Galindo, C., & Reardon, S. F. (2006, December). Hispanic Students’ Educational Experiences and Opportunities During Kindergarten: A Report to the National Task Force on Early Childhood Education for Hispanics. https://stacks.stanford.edu/file/druid:xz483fw4636/hispanic_experience.pdf

This comprehensive report for the National Task Force on Early Childhood Education for Hispanics thematically explores six different areas of policy as they relate to the educational experiences of Latine students in kindergarten. The report strategically highlights the complex intersectionality that these students experience and how these factors are further impacted through attending schools considered to be disadvantaged.

Luelmo, P., & Bindreiff, D. (2021, February). The disproportionality of Latinx students in special education. Leadership Magazine. https://leadership.acsa.org/disproportionality-of-latinx-students-special-ed

Diana v. State Board of Education (1970) showed the importance of having linguistically and culturally representative cognitive assessments for Latine students. Diana was misdiagnosed as having an intellectual disability when tested in English, although her primary language was Spanish. When tested in Spanish, she obtained scores that showed that she did not have an intellectual disability. In California during the 2018-19 school year, it was found that Latine students were found to be disproportionately overdiagnosed with Specific Learning Disabilities. This article calls for a better system for pre-referral and data collection that would shift from a deficit perspective lens to an equity-minded perspective. In doing so, stronger connections between home and school would be made.

Office of Special Education Programs (2020, December 17). OSEP Fast Facts: Hispanic and/or Latino Children with Disabilities. https://sites.ed.gov/idea/osep-fast-facts-hispanic-latino-children-disabilities-20/

This document from the Office of Special Education represents the most recent data about Latine students with disabilities. The facts are disaggregated by topic (i.e., educational placement, disciplinary removals) and the data is shown in comparison to either Latine students without disabilities or students with disabilities as a whole.

Smithsonian National Museum of the American Latino. (n.d.). Thriving in Diversity. National Museum of the American Latino. https://latino.si.edu/exhibitions/GAC/thriving-diversity

This incredibly interesting art archive and exhibit documents the lived experiences of Latine people with disabilities in the US. By focusing on “art-ivism” in the exhibit, Latine folks with disabilities can tell their stories in a compelling and influential manner.

Part III: Policies, Practices, Programs

Massachusetts Advocates for Children. (n.d.). Proyecto Acceso a la Educación Especial. Massachusetts Advocates for Children. https://www.massadvocates.org/proyecto-acceso-a-la-educacion-especial

Proyecto Acceso a la Educación Especial is a program of Massachusetts Advocates for Children, a nonprofit organization whose mission is to remove barriers to educational and life opportunities for children and youth. This program specifically offers support to Spanish-speaking families of children with autism and other disabilities who may need special services at school so they can succeed. As part of this work, MAC has developed a series of videos in multiple languages providing information on the rights of children with special education needs. The video below is part of that series. Proyecto Acceso a la Educación Especial is one community that has responded to supporting the needs and strengths of families who have a Latine child with special learning needs. Below we include a video from their learning series.

Derechos de educación especial: Pidiendo una evaluación de la escuela. YouTube, uploaded by Massachusetts Advocates for Children. May 7th, 2020.

US Department of Education. (2015, August 10). Chapter 6 Tools and Resources for Addressing English Learners With Disabilities. Department of Education. Retrieved March 8, 2024, from https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/oela/english-learner-toolkit/chap6.pdf         

This English Learner Tool Kit, written by the U.S. Department of Education, includes chapters on tools and resources for English Learners with disabilities. The chapter provides evidence-based best practices that educators and administrators can follow to ensure that all facets of special education, from referral writing to accommodation creation, are being considered within the cultural and linguistic context of Latine students.

A full list of references can be found in the References (by Chapter) section.