by Melissa Colón, PhD

In part due to Puerto Rico’s colonial status, Puerto Ricans, who are US citizens by birthright, have been migrating and building communities in the US for well over 100 years. A such, Puerto Rican students in US schools are not a new phenomenon. Student population records from as early as the 1910s indicate concentrations of Puerto Rican students in public school districts in what would soon become historic Puerto Rican enclaves (Nieto, 2000; Sánchez Korrol, 1994). Currently, Puerto Ricans make up the second-largest Hispanic-origin group in the US, second only to Mexican-origin individuals (Shah, 2023). Yet despite their long history in the US, Puerto Rican students have faced a long history of educational exclusions and systemic inequalities in US schools, shaped by colonial legacies and racial discrimination. On the other side of these challenges, however has been ongoing activism in educational reform and advocacy efforts that center on human rights. Inspired by the US Civil Rights Movement, and Human Rights Movements in the Caribbean and Latin America, Puerto Ricans have long served as advocates for bilingual education, equitable funding, culturally responsive education, and desegregation efforts (Cruz, 2017; Jesús & Rolón-Dow, 2007; Nieto, 2000; Reyes, 2000).  Understanding the schooling experiences of Puerto Rican students in US schools requires introspection of the impact of colonialism, migration, racism, and resistance on various fronts. The resources in this guide provide insights into these complexities.

Part I: Annotated Bibliography

Antrop-González, R., Vélez, W., & Garrett, T. (2005). Dónde Están los Estudiantes Puertorriqueños/os Exitosos? [Where Are the Academically Successful Puerto Rican Students?]: Success Factors of High-Achieving Puerto Rican High School Students. Journal of Latinos and Education, 4(2), 77–94. https://umbrella.lib.umb.edu/permalink/01MA_UMB/j9evc/cdi_eric_primary_EJ725032

This study focuses on the schooling experiences of ten high-achieving  Puerto Rican (PR) high school students. The study identified four key factors that contributed to the participants’ high academic achievement. These included (1) the acquisition of social capital through community-based extracurricular activities, including church groups, (2) having a strong Puerto Rican identity, (3) the influence and support of their mothers, and (4) having caring teachers and other school staff who encouraged their academic achievement. The study also revealed that despite being “high achieving students”  PR students in the study were not receiving a rigorous college preparatory education, and the curriculum and instruction did not include the students’ linguistic, historical, and or cultural traditions and perspectives. Further, while participants shared their appreciation of caring teachers, they made it clear that most of their teachers did not demonstrate care and concern for their educational futures.

Hidalgo, N. M. (1992). “I saw Puerto Rico once”: A Review of the Literature on Puerto Rican Families and School Achievement in the United States. Report No. 12. (p. 64). Center on Families; Communities, Schools and Children’s Learning. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED355029

Drawing on a five-year ethnographic study, this report provides a comprehensive historical analysis of existing research on the educational experiences of  PR students in the US. It examines factors influencing their academic achievement, including family dynamics, socioeconomic status, language barriers, and cultural identity. The author suggests that central to understanding disparities in outcomes is understanding the sociopolitical context in which schooling takes place, including the intersections between ongoing migration and colonialism. The findings suggest that improving academic achievement requires a holistic approach, incorporating culturally responsive teaching, family engagement, and policy reform. The role of family engagement and partnerships with community organizations was also identified as important to the development of PR children and youth.

Irizarry, J. G., & Antrop-González, R. (2013). RicanStruction sites: Race, space, and place in the education of DiaspoRican youth. Taboo: The Journal of Culture and Education, 13(1), 7. https://doi.org/10.31390/taboo.13.1.07

Drawing from a broader ethnographic study of two urban high schools that serve a large percentage of PR students, this article explores the educational experiences of DiasporRican youth (Puerto Rican Youth in the US), examining how race, space, and place shape their schooling. Calling attention to the systemic inequalities and racialization that PR students face in urban schools, Irizarry and Antrop-González argue that traditional educational structures fail to recognize the unique identities and experiences of DiaspoRican youth, often reinforcing deficit perspectives that ultimately impact the engagement and academic achievement of this group.  As an antidote, the authors call for a “RicanStruction”– or a transformation of the education afforded to PR students. This transformation, in part, calls for culturally sustaining pedagogies and community-centered approaches that empower Puerto Rican students by valuing their cultural heritage, linguistic diversity, and lived experiences.

Nieto, S. (2000). Puerto Rican Students in U.S. Schools. Routledge. https://umbrella.lib.umb.edu/permalink/01MA_UMB/1a3vcr/alma993670593503746

Written by eminent education scholar Dr. Sonia Nieto, this book provides an in-depth sociopolitical and historical examination of the educational experiences of PR students in the American school system, highlighting the structural challenges they face while navigating US schools. Weaving research, historical analysis, as well as personal narratives, Dr. Nieto explores issues such as bilingual education, teacher expectations, discrimination, racial segregation, migration patterns, and the systemic barriers that contribute to disparities in academic achievement. In this book, Dr. Nieto calls for culturally responsive pedagogy,  equitable educational policies, and greater community involvement to support the academic success of PR students. To date, this groundbreaking book continues to be the most comprehensive book that focuses on PR students in US schools.

Rolón-Dow, R. (2005). Critical care: A color (full) analysis of care narratives in the schooling experiences of Puerto Rican girls. American Educational Research Journal, 42(1), 77–111. https://umbrella.lib.umb.edu/permalink/01MA_UMB/j9evc/cdi_proquest_journals_200413734Written by Dr.

Rosalie Rolón-Dow, an eminent education scholar, this article examines the schooling experiences of  PR middle school girls, and how care is expressed and withheld in racialized and gendered educational settings. Grounded in Critical race theory and Latino/Latina critical theory, as a basis for data analysis, Dr. Rolón-Dow asks readers to critically consider the role of care in schools. Centering the voices of middle school PR girls, this study challenges traditional notions of care in schools and calls for a more inclusive and culturally responsive approach to supporting students from marginalized backgrounds. Specifically, she calls for a  “a color(full) critical care praxis” that is grounded in a historical and sociocultural understanding of students’ lives, tending to care work at both the individual and institutional level. Further, this type of critical care praxis would allow more meaningful connections between teachers and the Latino communities where they work.

Part II:  Popular Sources

Center for Puerto Rican Studies. (2024). The State of Puerto Ricans in the U.S. Dashboard. CentroPR. https://centropr.hunter.cuny.edu/tools/state-of-puerto-ricans-in-the-us-dashboard/

This interactive dashboard offers updated Socio-Demographic Data of Puerto Ricans in the United States and Puerto Rico. Using the dashboard tools users can explore variables such as in- and out-migration between the states and Puerto Rico, educational attainment and language proficiency, income, employment, housing, health, and much more. The dashboard also includes maps, graphics, and charts, documenting trends of the Puerto Rican population within Puerto Rico, nationwide, and in the 14 most populous states.

Morales, I. (Director). (1996, October 15). Palante Siempre Palante! The Young Lords. https://umbrella.lib.umb.edu/permalink/01MA_UMB/1a3vcr/alma9919510047003746

Founded in the late 1960s, the Young Lords Party was a revolutionary civil rights organization founded by young Puerto Ricans. They advocated for racial and economic justice, education reform, and community control, becoming a significant force in the struggle for civil rights in the United States. Palante, Siempre Palante is a documentary on the history of the Young Lords. It includes on-camera interviews, archival footage, photographs, and music. Tracing the philosophy, activities, and history of this organization.

Puerto Rico Syllabus – Essential Tools for Critical Thinking about the Puerto Rican Debt Crisis. (n.d.). https://puertoricosyllabus.com/

The Puerto Rico Syllabus is a comprehensive website that offers high-quality scholarly and publicly accessible materials created to allow users to deeply explore issues impacting Puerto Rico and Puerto Ricans within the larger political, social, and economic history of this U.S. territory. Topics include: “Explosion of the Debt Crisis,” “Hurricane Maria,” “The New Great Migration”, and “The questions of Sovereignty”- to name a few. Each topic offers key texts (in Spanish and English) along with some primary documents, multimedia, and suggestions for further reading.

Part III: Policies, Practices, Programs

ASPIRA

ASPIRA. (2024). ASPIRA. https://aspira.org/

Founded in 1961 by nationally renowned educator and scholar Dr. Antonia Pantoja, ASPIRA is a national nonprofit organization that provides students with educational and cultural sustaining programming that prepares students, or “aspirantes” to excel academically and develop their leadership skills.  ASPIRA currently serves over 85,000 students each year through its ASPIRA Clubs in schools, after-school education, and guidance programs throughout the United States. While ASPIRA’s work began in Puerto Rican communities of NYC, it now provides services to diverse communities nationwide.

CENTRO [Center for Puerto Rican Studies]

https://centropr.hunter.cuny.edu/

The Center for Puerto Rican Studies, known as CENTRO, is the largest university-based research institute, library, and archive dedicated to the Puerto Rican experience in the United States. Founded in 1973 by a coalition of students, faculty, and activists, and with the aim of providing “actionable and accessible scholarship” to strengthen, broaden, and reimagine the field of Puerto Rican studies, CENTRO offers the public top notch research, access to archives (including books, primary source documents, films, and other educations tools) as well as in person and virtual events that center on deepening our understanding of the Puerto Rican community.

HOLYOKE ETHNIC STUDIES PROGRAM

One of the oldest Puerto Rican communities in the U.S. is located in Holyoke, Massachusetts- a post-industrial town located in the Western part of the state. Given the demographics of Holyoke, for decades, Puerto Rican students have represented the majority of the student body.  To provide a more culturally sustaining and responsive education,  in 2013, Holyoke Public Schools launched the Holyoke Ethnic Studies (HES) program. The short documentary, below, provides insights into the context, history, and an overview of the program. It also includes testimonios from students, educators, and partners of the program who speak to the transformative impact and importance of HES to Holyoke’s students and educators. Students in the HES program, for example, have demonstrated measurable success through academic achievement, active engagement, and successful matriculation. A full program report for the 2021-2022 school year can be found here: https://scholarworks.umass.edu/entities/publication/ef3bebae-fb3e-42fc-b0eb-f47d33f81552

A full list of references can be found in the References (by Chapter) section.