Before moving on to editorial style in this chapter, I chose to focus first on writing style in the first two chapters (see the Introduction for a reminder of the difference). I have made this choice because of the logical flow of the writing process and because the content of your message is the most important element of your paper. Placing too much emphasis on editorial style early on can stifle your creativity, cause unnecessary anxiety, and restrict your freedom to make and learn from your mistakes. As Fowler and colleagues (2005) noted, “writing is not only, or even mainly, a matter of correctness” (p. 20).

Where editorial style becomes important is in the effective communication of the message you create to others. At this point, you have a draft of your paper, based on your work in Chapter 1 and Chapter 2. You have taken a break from your research to craft a thesis statement and to organize the ideas you have gathered under the various key points and sub-points in your argument. You also have a sense of the gaps you need to fill to support your argument. You can keep working on finding additional support in the scholarly literature as you begin to refine what you have already written.

In this chapter, I introduce some of the core elements of editorial style, drawing heavily on the APA Manual and other online resources designed to help you improve the quality of your writing. The techniques below are designed to add clarity, flow, and structure to your paper with a view to making it more meaningful to the reader. Some students decide to ignore APA formatting and forfeit that percentage of their grade; what they do not realize is that writing and editorial skills may also impact the remaining portion of their grade. Your ability to demonstrate critical thinking, to reflect the levels of learning targeted in the course assignment, and to clearly and effectively articulate an argument is directly related to the quality of the writing in your paper. If you have a great idea, but you are not able to articulate it clearly, your instructor likely will not get it!

You can use the links below to quickly access information on any of the topics covered:

• Developing strong paragraphs
  • Creating flow (key point and sub-points)
  • Transitional devices (pronouns / transitional words)
  • Clarity and conciseness
  • Structuring skills
• Using verbs effectively
  • Using verbs that reflect your information source
  • Selecting verb tense
• Sentence structure
  • Basic components of a sentence
  • Sentence fragments (incomplete sentences)
  • Agreement between subject and verb
  • Agreement between noun and pronoun
  • Appropriate placement of modifiers
  • Subordinate elements
  • Parallel construction
• Spelling
  • Commonly misspelled words
  • Canadian spelling
  • Hyphenation
• Punctuation
  • Commas
  • Semicolons
  • Colons
  • Quotations marks
  • Dashes
  • Parentheses
  • Slashes
• Word formatting
  • Capitalization
  • Abbreviations
  • Italics
  • Numbers
• Summary

Developing strong paragraphs

My focus in this chapter is on the revision phase of the writing process. I emphasize the importance of carefully examining both the content and structure of the paper to ensure that you meet the standards for graduate academic writing. You can now take your draft paper and begin to carefully revise it. Once you find enough information about a particular point, you may start refining your paragraphs.

Creating flow from your key point to sub-points

For some ideas about how to develop a good paragraph, see the Purdue University Online Writing Lab – On Paragraphs. Please also review the University of Toronto Writing Workshop – Paragraphs and pay attention to the importance of beginning each paragraph with one of the key points in your argument (referred to as a topic sentence). In your topic sentence, you describe the element of your overall argument that you plan to address in the paragraph. If you find yourself moving away from your key point, start a new paragraph! As a general rule of thumb, restrict your paragraphs to about half a page in length, with one key point per paragraph and a number of supporting or sub-points. The reader will likely lose focus on your key point if you run beyond one page per paragraph (see the APA Manual Section 3.08).

You can organize the sub-points in your paragraph in a number of ways (Fowler et al., 2005):

• general to specific or specific to general;
• chronologically, from most recent to oldest or vice versa;
• simplest to most complex or most complex to simplest;
• most important to least important or least important to most important; or
• most familiar to least familiar or vice versa.

For more information about how to write effective paragraphs using some of these organizational strategies, see the University of Victoria Writer’s Guide – Developing and Ordering Paragraphs. In the examples in Figure 3.1 below, notice the difference in flow of the paragraphs when they are organized in different ways. The unorganized paragraph below is the least clear and meaningful!

Figure 3.1. Ways to organize sub-points within a paragraph.

The type of organizational structure you chose does not matter; what matters is that you have a logical flow in your paragraph so that the reader understands your key point and sub-points.

Using transitional devices

Using transitional words will increase the logical flow of ideas within a particular paragraph (APA Manual Section 3.05). There are two types of transitional words.

Pronouns may be used to link one sentence to the content of another. Here are two examples:

• Wiseman (2003) stated that it is important for health practitioners to be familiar with provincial health regulations. She noted that even the regulations pertaining to other health professions provide useful information.
• Wiseman (2003) stated that provincial health regulations should be included in health disciplines training. They often provide useful information that can be applied across health professions.

In both examples above, you can tell which noun I am referencing in the previous sentence, and the pronoun I choose matches that noun (Wiseman . . . She . . . : health regulations. . . They . . . ). In the following example, it is unclear which noun from the first sentence is being referenced (Wiseman and colleagues or health regulations), so the meaning is blurred.

• Wiseman and colleagues (2003) stated that it is important for health practitioners to be familiar with provincial health regulations. They often provide useful information.

Transitional words may also be used at the beginning of sentences to provide a link based on time, place, cause, purpose, and so on. Here is an example:

• Wiseman (2003) stated that it is important for health practitioners to be familiar with provincial health regulations. In addition, some federal laws provide guidance in areas not covered under provincial legislation.

If you have trouble identifying new ways to say “In addition to,” or if you are not clear about which transitional word to use, review the tips on the following Web sites:

• University of Wisconsin-Madison’s Writing Center – Transitional Words and Phrases
• Purdue University’s Online Writing Lab – Transitional Devices

Writing with clarity and conciseness

Many graduate students struggle to write with precision. You may need to eliminate words that distract from your intended meaning and choose words that clearly communicate that meaning.

Conciseness or economy of expression. Many writers, even those who have been at it for a long time, find it challenging, sometimes almost impossible, to say things effectively, even when they specifically set out to do so, without using so many extra and unnecessary words. Did you catch my illustration of this point? As a result, their meaning becomes lost. Take a moment to read through Section 3.08 of the APA Manual for some tips on how to be more concise in your writing.

Precision and Clarity. Many writers also find it challenging to use language effectively to communicate exactly what they mean. Section 3.09 of the APA Manual introduces a number of strategies for increasing the precision of your writing. Here are some pitfalls that graduate students commonly encounter:

• Vague pronouns. “Great writers create happy readers. They value precision and clarity.” It is unclear whether They refers to the writers or the readers.
• Editorial we. “We should all be careful to write what we actually mean.” Who is the We in this sentence?
• Jargon. “Alberta companies are engaged in redundancy elimination in response to right-sizing pressures.” There are more clear ways to say that layoffs are taking place. Professional jargon should also be avoided (or at least defined) because it may not be common knowledge for the reader.
• Anthropomorphism. “The local charities in Victoria are doing a lot of Syrian refugees.” “The study argues that significant changes have occurred in nursing practice.” It is the members or boards of the charities (human beings) who are doing this work. Avoid attributing human characteristics or actions to organizations, animals, objects, or other inanimate subjects.

You may want to check out these additional resources:

• Purdue University’s Online Writing Lab – Paramedic Method: A Lesson in Writing Concisely
• University of Wisconsin-Madison’s Writing Center – Writing Clear, Concise Sentences

Structuring skills

Using structuring skills is another way to enhance the meaning and flow of your paper. These skills are used predominantly to connect paragraphs or sections of your paper to one another.

The structuring skills in Table 3.1 are designed to increase the meaningfulness and logical flow of your paper. The person reading your paper should be able to see the logical sequence of arguments by simply reading the topic sentences (key points) of each paragraph and the structuring skills used throughout your paper.

Table 3.1. Structuring Skills for Enhancing Meaning and Flow

You should also avoid paragraphs that contain only one sentence, like this one, because they float in space without meaningful connection to your argument.

Using verbs effectively

Verbs are one element of a sentence that can either increase or decrease meaning. The APA Manual also specifies a number of editorial expectations for your use of verbs and verb tenses.

Using verbs that reflect the nature of your information source

In Chapter 1, the issue of intellectual honesty was introduced, and you were cautioned to treat the work of other writers respectfully. You must also carefully choose verbs that accurately reflect your information source (see APA Manual Section 1.13). When you are drawing on research studies to support your points, it is appropriate to simply list the sources after each of your assertions. Here is an example:

• A significant correlation exists between self-esteem and self-efficacy (Brown & Woods, 2003; Frankel, 2005; Warrens et al., 2001).

However, in many cases, journal articles and other information sources reflect the opinions or hypotheses of the authors. In such cases, be careful to select verbs that indicate to the reader the nature of the original information.

• A number of authors speculated that globalization would soon require an expansion of professional ethics to address fundamental human rights at the international level (Martins & Perez, 2006; Pettifor, 2005).

Selecting verb tense

Students often struggle with verb tense in their papers. Read Sections 3.06 and 3.18 of the APA Manual. Table 3.2 contains suggestions about which verb tense to use in various parts of your paper. In most cases, you will not be reporting on your own research, so the procedures and results may not apply. You are also not expected to provide an abstract for most course assignments.

Table 3.2 Verb Tense and Elements of Your Paper

The purpose of selecting and consistently using specific verb tenses is to facilitate effective communication. In most cases, when you are reporting on published research, you will be speaking in the past tense, because these were arguments made by these individuals at a particular point in time. If you need further information about how to write in a particular verb tense, please see the Athabasca University English Grammar Handbook – Verbs. Follow the patterns outlined for various components of your paper. Switching verb tense within a paragraph or section will interrupt the flow of your paper and may reduce effective communication of your meaning to the reader. You also risk misrepresenting the nature of your information sources.

Sentence structure

The way you structure your sentences can have a dramatic effect on how well your paper reads. Remember, writing is about communicating meaning. Very simply, poor sentence structure can distract or confuse the reader, and your meaning may suddenly be lost. Composing a clear and meaningful sentence involves organizing the various components of your sentence properly.

Basic components of a sentence

If you are like most graduate students, it has probably been a long time since you have reviewed basic grammar rules. Even the parts of a sentence may no longer be easy for you to identify. Review the definitions in Table 3.3 to facilitate your understanding of sentence structure (adapted from Fowler et al., 2005, pp. 159-160).

Table 3.3. Basic Components of a Sentence

You will have difficulty following the grammar rules in the APA Manual or other writing resources if you do not understand these basic elements of sentences. For further information, or for definitions of terms not appearing on this list, see the Athabasca University English Grammar Handbook – Basic Grammar: Parts of Speech.

Sentence fragments (incomplete sentences)

You may find yourself getting feedback that you are not writing in complete sentences. To create a sentence, you must include both a subject (a noun or pronoun) and a verb.

• She cried.
• The test was difficult.
• It will be difficult to see the outcome.

The following are not sentences because they are missing either a subject or a verb.

• Critical incident reports in many classical experiments. [no verb]
• Running and hiding. [No subject]

When you start a sentence with a subordinating conjunction or a relative pronoun, you must ensure it is still a complete sentence. The following are not sentences even though they may contain a subject and a verb.

• Because she cried.
• In spite of the fact that the test was difficult.
• Who found it difficult to see the outcome.

For more detailed information on sentence structure, see Athabasca University’s English Grammar Handbook- Sentences and Grammar. You may also want to review examples of how to correctly form more complex sentences through the Purdue University Online Writing Lab – Sentence Punctuation Patterns.

If you want further information on sentence fragments, please see the University of Calgary Writing Support Services – Identifying and Fixing Sentence Fragments.

Agreement between the subject and verb

Read Sections 3.19 of the APA Manual, then review Purdue University Online Writing Lab – Making Subjects and Verbs Agree. The basic principle is that both the subject and the verb must be either singular or plural. Where errors occur is typically in mistaking a noun (the subject) as either singular or plural. Table 3.4 summarizes some of the grammatical rules related to agreement between subject and verb.

Table 3.4. Principles for Subject-Verb Agreement

Agreement between pronouns and the nouns they replace

Read Section 3.20 of the APA Manual and Purdue University Online Writing Lab – Using Pronouns Clearly. There are several basic principles that you should follow to ensure congruence between nouns and pronouns, as outlined in Table 3.5.

Table 3.5. Principles for Noun-Pronoun Agreement

Beyond APA: They as a singular pronoun

As with most disciplines, English grammar is rooted in Western worldviews that have traditionally treated gender as a binary concept: one is either male or female. Gender diversity (e.g., fluidity and complexity of gender identity) is now well recognized, both in health disciplines literature (American Counselling Association, 2014) and is reinforced by human rights legislation (United Nations Human Rights, n.d., 2014). This is resulting in a slow but critical transformation in language use. Take a moment to review the APA Style – The Use of Singular “They” in APA Style.

I believe that health practitioners should be taking responsibility for our deliberate use of language to support of cultural diversity and social justice. Here are a few tips for doing so:

• Respect the gender identity of your subject (in the grammatical sense of the word). If that individual uses the pronouns he or she, then you should use them. If that person uses the pronoun they, then you should mirror their self-identification.
• If the gender identity of the subject is unknown, then default to gender-neutral language wherever possible. You can often accomplish this by restructuring your sentence in a way that respects traditional rules of grammar.
• Make a conscious statement about gender by defaulting to they or them rather than he/she or him/her. Here is an example: The patient I saw yesterday listed depression and anxiety as their presenting concerns. Note: you may need to educate your instructor about this choice.

Appropriate placement of modifiers

Review the section on Components of a Sentence above to remind yourself of what modifiers that function like adverbs or adjectives look like. Without understanding what a modifier is, it is hard not to misplace them. Notice that the portion in italics is a dangling modifier because there is nothing in the sentence to hang it on. The word it does not specify whom the actor is. Restating the sentence in active voice helps resolve the problem: Without understanding what a modifier is, I find it hard not to misplace them.

Read Section 3.21 of the APA Manual and review Purdue University Online Writing Lab –  Dangling Modifiers and How to Correct Them. Table 3.6 summarizes the key principles for appropriate placement of modifiers.

Table 3.6. Principles for Appropriate Placement of Modifiers

Subordinate elements

Read Section 3.22 of the APA Manual, which describes the use of relative pronouns and subordinate conjunctions (see the Components of a Sentence) to introduce clauses or phrases that are subordinate to the main clause. Notice that, in the previous sentence, everything after which (a relative pronoun) could be removed, and you would still know what your instructions are! This is a subordinate element of the sentence. Tables 3.7 and 3.8 provide principles for effectively managing subordinate elements.

Table 3.7. Subordinate Elements Beginning With Relative Pronouns

Table 3.8. Subordinate Elements Beginning With Subordinate Conjunctions

Notice, that in some of the examples in Table 3.8, the content of the subordinate element is not essential to the meaning of the sentence, so it has be separated off with commas.

Parallel construction

It is important that separate parts of a sentence have a similar construction and for a similar pattern to be used to organize groups of words. Notice that the previous sentence would be easier to read if my pattern was consistent: It is important that separate parts of a sentence are constructed and that groups of words are organized using a similar pattern. Read Section 3.23 of the APA Manual and Purdue University Online Writing Lab – Parallel Structure. Next consider the general principles in Table 3.9.

Table 3.9. Principles to Support Parallel Construction

For further information about common errors that impact the clarity and meaning of sentences, please see the AU English Language Handbook – Common Sentence Faults.

Spelling

Correct spelling

Spelling something incorrectly is one way to lose marks on papers, and it is completely avoidable. The APA Manual recommends that you use Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary as your primary resource. You can access it online quickly and easily. I have also compiled a list of commonly misspelled words in Table 3.10.

Table 3.10. Commonly Misspelled Words

Canadian spelling

It is important that Canadian spelling be used in all graduate papers at Canadian universities. Please note that the spelling checker in Word will flag Canadian spelling as an error (e.g., behaviour). Over time, you can build your own personalized dictionary of words you commonly use. The Oxford Dictionary Online provides the British (Canadian) spelling when you look up a word. You may also find the following online source of Canadian spelling useful if you want to double-check a word:

• Dave VE7CNV’s – Truly Canadian Dictionary of Canadian Spelling

In Table 3.11, I have compiled a list of common words that require Canadian spelling. I have also identified general issues so you can watch for additional words that may fall into these categories.

Table 3.11. Canadian Spelling Guidelines and Examples

Note. I have drawn on the following sources to create this list: Barber (2004), Bond (2009), and Cornerstone Word Company (n.d.). Where there was disagreement, I referred to the Canadian Oxford Dictionary by Barber.

Exceptions

If you are quoting directly from a source that uses American or British spelling, do not change it to Canadian. Keep it exactly as it appears in the original text. The same applies to titles of articles, books, or journals in your reference list. You may also be encouraged by instructors and project supervisors to submit some of your writing for publication. When the time comes, check the location of the publisher of the journal to determine what spelling norms should be used.

Hyphenation

You may also lose marks on spelling through the misuse of hyphens. Read Section 4.13 of the APA Manual, which outlines several key principles for making decisions about hyphens.

Punctuation

Now that you know how to structure a sentence well, it is important to select appropriate punctuation to support your intended meaning. Many graduate students encounter challenges with punctuation, in part because APA style is not observed in our day-to-day interactions. However, there are a few simple rules that can eliminate confusion. Read Sections 4.01 to 4.11 of the APA Manual and then review the punctuation summary tables below. These tables provide you with the more common punctuation rules.

Commas

Table 3.12. Appropriate Placement of Commas

Semicolons

Table 3.13. Appropriate Placement of Semicolons

Colons

Table 3.14. Appropriate Placement of Colons

Quotations marks

Table 3.15. Appropriate Placement of Double Quotation Marks

Single quotation marks should normally not be used in your paper. “One exception is to indicate ‘a quote within a quote,’ in which the inside quotation marks should be single, not double.”  Notice that, in both cases, the quotation marks follow the comma or period.

Overuse of double quotations marks puts you at risk of appearing to quote others when you are not. Use other strategies to place emphasis on particular words or phrases.

Dashes

Table 3.16. Appropriate Placement of the Dash

Parentheses

Table 3.17. Appropriate Placement of Parentheses

Slashes

Table 3.18. Appropriate Placement of the Slash

If there are areas where you are still unclear, you may find it helpful to review the additional resources in Table 3.19.

Table 3.19. Additional punctuation resources

Remember that if there are differences in editorial rules across resources, you should normally default to the APA Manual, except for the Canadian spelling noted above.

Word formatting

The APA Manual addresses a number of other editorial issues where the principles used are sometimes specific to the profession. As a result, you will find that various writing tutorials, which may target other audiences, introduce different rules. It is important to review the specific editorial guidelines that apply to writing in the health disciplines.

Capitalization

Read Sections 4.14 to 4.20 of the APA Manual for examples of when to capitalize the words in your paper. Review the capitalization checklist in Table 3.20 for a summary of these principles. Refer to this checklist if you are unsure of where to include capital letters.

Table 3.20. Capitalization Checklist

Abbreviations

Understanding when to use an abbreviation begins with a few basic principles:

• The purpose of an abbreviation is to increase clarity.
• Abbreviations also save space and reduce redundancy when terms are long and complicated.
• The meaning of the abbreviation must be clearly defined or commonly understood.
• Do not use more than one abbreviation for the same term or concept.

These basic principles result in specific rules for abbreviation use in various contexts or professions. Review Sections 4.22 to 4.30 of the APA Manual for details on how to best use them in health disciplines writing. As a general test, ask yourself this question: “Does this abbreviation make my intended meaning more or less clear to my readers?”

Italics

Italics should be used carefully and infrequently in your papers. [I have use them more frequently in this e-book to point out examples because font colours may not appear on some devices.] The specific uses of italics, outlined in section 4.21 of the APA Manual, which are most likely to apply to your graduate papers, include

• titles of books or periodicals,
• first introduction of new or important concepts or terms,
• words or phrases introduced as examples, or
• words or phrases that would otherwise be misread.

Resist the urge to use italics for emphasis. Use other grammatical devices and structure your sentences clearly to communicate what you see as important.

Numbers

Based on Sections 4.31 to 4.40 of the APA Manual, here are a few simple rules that you should remember for referring to numbers.

Table 3.21. Expressing numbers in figures or words

Summary

In Chapter 2, you spent a lot of time focusing on the forest, getting the big picture of what your paper would look like and how you would develop a logical and convincing argument for your reader. This chapter has honed in on the trees, many of the little details that can influence whether or not those great ideas you developed in Chapter 2 are accessible to the reader. The more you are able to fine-tune your writing in these areas, the more meaningful and straightforward your communication will be.

I expect that this lesson will be a challenge for many students. It was a challenge for me to ensure that I was providing correct examples and feedback on all exercises. However, some of you may experience more difficulty than others with basic written language skills. You may need to engage in further skill development before you can be successful in graduate school. Please search out the resources at your home university. If you are an AU student, take advantage of the resources provided through our Write Site.

Now is a good time to step back again from this detailed revision of your words, your sentences, and your individual paragraphs to reread your paper, looking again for overall flow and ease of understanding. Make sure that your thesis and arguments remain clear. You may want to use the checklist below to wrap up this part of your revision process. I have drawn some of these ideas from Fowler et al. (2005).

• Have you structured each paragraph in a deliberate way to support the key point?
• Have you structured the paper to make the flow of key points in the argument clear?
• Have you made the relationship among various parts of the paper transparent?
• Have you used appropriate transitional devices to support the flow of argument from one paragraph to another?
• Have you written in a concise way, without extraneous words that distract from the meaning?
• Is your writing precise and clear, without vague pronouns or jargon that may distract and confuse the reader?
• Have you used appropriate structuring skills to link the various components of the argument (paragraphs) to one another?
• Have you made the intention of the original author clear through the verbs you used?
• Have you chosen consistent verb tense within various sections of the paper?
• Does your selection of verb tense fit with the purpose of each section?
• Does your sentence structure support clarity and precision of meaning?
• Is there agreement between subjects and verbs, nouns and pronouns?
• Have you carefully place modifiers close to the word that they relate to?
• Have you cordoned off subordinate elements with commas so they do not dilute the main message of each sentence?
• Are you using parallel construction, voice, and verb tense within each sentence?
• Have you run a spelling and grammar check? Have you double checked for Canadian spelling or other words that are spelled correctly but used incorrectly?
• Does your use of punctuation enhance the flow of meaning in your writing? Have you over or under used certain types of punctuation?
• Does your formatting of individual words reflect the guidelines in the APA Manual?