26 Ancient Persia

The Neo-Assyrians established the largest empire in Near Eastern history by conquering Mesopotamia, Syria, Canaan, and Egypt. However, as we learned in the previous chapter, their reign was short-lived, as the Babylonians and Medes eventually destroyed the empire and divided the spoils. This marked a transitional period that paved the way for an even more vast empire. The Persian Empire emerged from the eastern region of Mesopotamia, founded by skilled warriors and efficient administrators. The Persian kings wielded immense power, wealth, and authority, ruling over a vast territory that stretched from the Indus River to the Nile. Governors, stationed in conquered regions, served as extensions of the king’s authority, while trade flourished along a network of roads protected by the Persian military. For two centuries, the Persian Empire reigned supreme as the ancient world’s dominant superpower.

Early Persian History

The origins of the Persians are shrouded in mystery, dating back to the arrival of nomadic Indo-European speakers in the Near East around 2000 BCE. These early Persians, also known as Indo-Iranians or Indo-Aryans, were primarily pastoralists, relying on animal husbandry and a migratory lifestyle, with the horse-drawn chariot playing a significant role. It is unclear how they interacted with existing populations in the region, whether they displaced or assimilated with them. Written records from the 9th century BCE reveal that the Neo-Assyrian Empire launched military campaigns against and extracted tribute from the Persians, who inhabited the southern Zagros Mountains and the Persian Gulf region, near the Medes, with whom they shared cultural similarities.

The early Persians are known through the ancient Greek historian Herodotus, who wrote that Persia was a vassal of Media in the 7th century BCE but gained independence under Cyrus II (Cyrus the Great) in the 6th century BCE. Cyrus, likely a member of the Achaemenid dynasty, reorganized the Persian state and military, creating divisions for cavalry, archers, and infantry. He then defeated the Medes in 550 BCE and integrated their elite into his government, expanding his empire. Between 550 and 539 BCE, Cyrus conquered the Neo-Babylonian Empire, incorporating Mesopotamia, Syria, Phoenicia, and Judah into his empire. He administered this vast domain through local governors, a strategy to prevent rebellions. After Cyrus’ death in 530 BCE, his son Cambyses II continued his expansion, conquering Egypt in 525 BCE and adopting the role of pharaoh, respecting local traditions to win support.

During the reign of Cambyses II, the Persian Empire reached its zenith, encompassing a vast territory that spanned from the borders of India to the Aral Sea, and from the Aegean coast of Anatolia to the Nile River, with all the lands in between under its control. However, at the pinnacle of his power, a revolt erupted in 522 BCE in support of his brother Bardiya, threatening the empire’s stability. En route to quell the rebellion, Cambyses II met his demise, plunging the empire into uncertainty. This sudden turn of events paved the way for the ascension of Darius I, arguably Persia’s most renowned and formidable leader, who would go on to shape the empire’s future.

Darius I

Darius I seized control of the Persian Empire in 522 BCE, but it took over a year to suppress the subsequent rebellions, some of which were sparked by doubts about his legitimacy. To solidify his claim, Darius married into the royal line, wedding the daughters of Cyrus II, the widow of Cambyses II, and two of Cambyses’s sisters. He also established a network of satrapies, each governed by a trusted noble, to administer the vast empire. The satraps wielded significant power but answered directly to the king. This system allowed for efficient governance and helped maintain control over the vast territories. By establishing a clear chain of command, Darius was able to consolidate his power, establishing what would be known as the Achaemenid Empire.

The satrapies were administered by royal governors, usually Persian or Median nobles, who oversaw vast lands, collected taxes, and maintained order. They ruled from large cities, with local rulers managing affairs related to specific ethnic or religious groups. The Persian heartland was governed directly by the king, with the satraps keeping the regions pacified and submitting taxes. To maintain control, Darius I and later kings used tools like royal officials, who conducted audits and compiled reports on the satraps’ governance. Negative reports could result in removal or execution, with military garrisons enforcing discipline when necessary. Additionally, a network of royal roads facilitated communication between satraps and the king, enabling rapid transmission of letters and maintaining control over the empire.

Darius’s reign was marked by grandiose building projects that showcased his power and authority. He commissioned the construction of opulent palaces in Susa, Persepolis, and Pasargadae, which were built and adorned by skilled artisans from diverse regions, reflecting a blend of artistic influences from across the empire. The palaces featured Greek-style fluted columns, Assyrian reliefs, and elements from Egyptian, Lydian, Babylonian, Elamite, and Median cultures. Thousands of workers, including men, women, and children, migrated to the construction sites, often living in nearby villages or encampments. In addition to these architectural feats, Darius oversaw significant infrastructure projects, such as the ambitious construction of a canal connecting the Red Sea to the Nile River, which would have enabled ships to travel from the Red Sea to the Mediterranean. Although it is uncertain whether the project was completed, its scope demonstrates the vast resources and power at the disposal of the Persian kings. Other notable infrastructure projects included the expansion and renovation of the empire’s extensive road network and the construction of qanats, sophisticated underground tunnels that facilitated the transportation of fresh water over long distances, primarily for irrigation purposes.

In Darius’ Persia, the social hierarchy was strictly organized, with enslaved individuals at the bottom, followed by free peasants, artisans, educated classes, and the ruling order. The Persian king, as the earthly representative of Ahura Mazda, the supreme deity and embodiment of wisdom, goodness, and justice, held absolute power and expected complete submission from his subjects. His superiority was emphasized through rituals, such as requiring servants to cover their mouths to avoid breathing on him. The king’s power was tempered by custom and the advice of leading nobles, including the “Commander of a Thousand,” who managed the court and oversaw the king’s personal protection. The king’s succession was not necessarily based on primogeniture, as he could choose his heir from among his sons. Meanwhile, ordinary people lived simple lives, with most relying on agriculture for sustenance. They grew crops like wheat, barley, and dates, and raised livestock like goats, sheep, and cattle.

The Persian court was itinerant, moving periodically between cities and regions to avoid extreme weather and maintain political visibility. This migration allowed the king to connect with peasants and villagers, who could present petitions or seek guidance. The movement of the court required the efforts of thousands of people, including officials, soldiers, and servants, and involved the transport of horses, chariots, and treasure. The arrival of the court was met with elaborate ceremonies, including sacrifices to local deities and gift-giving. These ceremonies strengthened the king’s relationship with his subjects and reinforced his authority. In contrast, ordinary people’s lives were marked by hard work and simple pleasures. They lived in modest homes, often with extended family members, and enjoyed traditional foods, music, and storytelling.

The Persian army was a diverse force, comprising subject peoples from across the empire, each with their own uniforms and customs. Military training began at a young age and included archery, horseback combat, and hand-to-hand combat. The Immortals, an elite infantry force, served as the king’s personal guard and in battle. The larger army was organized into corps, each with a commanding officer, and employed tactics such as rapid archery fire and cavalry advances. The empire also supported various occupations, including sentinels, messengers, architects, merchants, and agricultural workers, who grew traditional crops like wheat and barley. Ordinary people also played a crucial role in the empire’s economy, with many working as artisans, traders, or laborers. They used a system of weights and measures, and bartered goods like grains, textiles, and metals.

The Achaemenid Empire, which had once been a dominant force under Darius I, began to decline after his death in 486 BCE. His successors, including Xerxes I, Artaxerxes I, and Darius II, struggled to maintain control over the vast territories, facing internal power struggles, regional uprisings, and pressure from external powers like the Greek city-states. The Greco-Persian Wars, including battles like Marathon and Thermopylae, further weakened the empire. By the time Alexander the Great conquered Persia in 330 BCE, the Empire was already in a state of decline. Alexander’s victory marked the end of the Achaemenid Empire and the beginning of the Hellenistic period in Persia.

The Seleucid Empire, which was established by Seleucus I after Alexander’s death, struggled to maintain control over Persia due to local resistance, conflicts with rival Hellenistic states, and the vastness of the territory. The Seleucid Empire’s influence eventually waned, and the region became fragmented, with local rulers asserting their independence. This period of instability set the stage for the rise of the Parthian Empire, which was established by Arsaces I in 247 BCE. The Parthians created a powerful empire that blended Persian, Greek, and local traditions, but their decentralized political structure and internal power struggles weakened their control. By the 3rd century CE, the Parthians were overthrown by the Sassanid Empire, led by Ardashir I, who established a new Persian dynasty that would dominate the region for centuries.

Zoroastrianism

The religious beliefs and practices of ancient Persia were complex and multifaceted, reflecting the cultural and geographical diversity of the region. Although there was no single, unified “Persian religion,” several common themes and elements were prevalent across many ancient Persian communities. These included a reverence for natural phenomena such as mountains, rivers, and trees; a recognition of the sacred power of fire; and an emphasis on rituals and sacrifices to maintain cosmic balance and order. Ancient Persians also acknowledged a multitude of supernatural beings, including gods, goddesses, and ancestral spirits, each with distinct powers and domains. These beliefs and practices varied by region and community, showcasing the rich cultural diversity of ancient Persia.

A significant shift in the religious landscape occurred with the rise of Zoroastrianism. Zarathustra (also known as Zoroaster), who is traditionally placed around the 6th century BCE, introduced a revolutionary religious framework that began to influence the region. Zoroastrianism, founded by Zarathustra, emphasized a dualistic worldview with Ahura Mazda, the supreme deity representing wisdom and good, opposed by Angra Mainu, the destructive spirit of evil. This religion focused on the eternal conflict between these forces, with humans required to choose their path in alignment with the struggle between good and evil.

During the Achaemenid Empire, which began with Cyrus the Great (c. 550–530 BCE), Zoroastrian ideas played a significant role. The Achaemenid rulers, including Cyrus and his successors, were seen as divine representatives of Ahura Mazda, and Zoroastrian principles influenced their policies and governance. The empire’s interaction with various cultures and religions led to exchanges of ideas, and elements of Zoroastrian thought contributed to the broader religious landscape of the time. This interaction indirectly influenced later religious traditions, including aspects of Jewish, Christian, and Islamic thought, though the precise nature and extent of these influences remain complex and debated among scholars.  While the religion of the Persians was Zoroastrianism, the empire included people of different religions, including Armenians, Nubians, Libyans, Phoenicians, Egyptians, Babylonians, Ionian Greeks, Bactrians, Judeans, and many others. Indeed, it was the Persian king Cyrus II who permitted the Jews exiled in Babylon to return to Judah and rebuild their temple. The empire expected loyalty and the payment of tribute, but its kings were not interested in transforming their diverse peoples into Persians. Instead, they developed an imperial system that supported the maintenance of a multiethnic, multilingual, and multireligious empire.

People living in ancient Persia practiced Zoroastrianism through a variety of daily and communal activities that reflected their devotion and adherence to the faith. They engaged in regular rituals centered around the sacred elements of fire and water, which were central to Zoroastrian worship. Households maintained a sacred fire in their homes, which they tended carefully as a symbol of purity and divine presence. Public worship involved attending local fire temples, where priests performed ceremonies and offered sacrifices to Ahura Mazda, the supreme deity. Festivals and seasonal rituals, such as the celebration of Nowruz (the Persian New Year), played a crucial role in community life, bringing people together to honor the divine and seek blessings for the year ahead. Additionally, ordinary people practiced ethical behavior aligned with Zoroastrian teachings, striving to lead lives characterized by truthfulness, righteousness, and respect for the natural world, as these were believed to contribute to the ongoing cosmic struggle between good and evil.

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