In This Chapter
Before we begin our work of entering the conversation about First Year Composition and Academic Writing, we need some basic concepts about how to listen to that conversation. As we already discussed, one of the primary features of academic writing is that it is argumentative. Rather than being a list of already established facts, academic writing will make logic and evidence-based claims and then support those claims with facts.
However, academic writing isn’t just something that scholars and students produce. Scholars and students also use academic articles, books, and other texts to support the arguments they make. By referring to other texts, academic writers directly address specific conversations and build their authority to speak. Experienced writers know that not all sources and texts are equal, and they take the time to evaluate the sources they use.
Imagine that you walk into a party and discover a group of people talking about music. The group is trying to decide who the greatest musical artist of all time is. You could jump in and voice your opinion, but without any evidence, whatever you say will only be an opinion–not a true argument. You take a few minutes and listen to the conversation. Some people in the group believe greatness should be determined by album sales. Others think greatness should be based on overall popularity. Still others think that greatness is defined by innovation and uniqueness. As you listen, you can get a better sense of what the entire group agrees about–the facts they’re basing their arguments upon. You can also begin to see where the group disagrees. It is only when you understand the places where they disagree that you can formulate your own claim.
But there’s more to making a claim than simply disagreeing with someone. Strong arguments will have clear reasons for why the argument is valid. They will also have solid evidence that proves the reasons are correct.
Like the conversation about music, academic writers must first understand what the conversation entails before joining in. They might begin their work by using dictionaries, encyclopedias, and other fact-oriented reference resources to gain a clear understanding of the facts about the topic, but they would need to go beyond reference resources to begin understanding the complete topic. They would need to find sources where other scholars and writers make arguments about how to interpret those facts or about the importance of the facts.
We already learned that academic writing is well sourced. Academic writers must use a variety of resources to make sure they understand the conversation they are entering as completely as possible. Often, the resources writers use are essays, academic journal articles, or books. These resources present logical and evidence-based arguments that writers can use to support their own arguments. But to use these resources, writers need to read carefully and analytically. Most of all, they need to understand how arguments are built in order to evaluate the claims, reasons and evidence the various sources make.
Defining Argument
At school, at work, and in everyday life, argument is one of main ways we exchange ideas with one another. Salespeople make persuasive arguments to convince customers to purchase their goods or services. Children make arguments to negotiate privileges with their parents and guardians. Friends make arguments as they decide which movie to see or which restaurant to eat at.
Scholars, business people, scientists, and other professionals all make arguments to determine what to do or think, or to solve a problem by enlisting others to do or believe something they otherwise would not. Not surprisingly, then, argument dominates writing, and training in argument writing is essential for all college students.
Before moving to the specific parts and vocabulary of argument, it will be helpful to consider some further ideas about what argument actually is.
Argument is not Fighting or Controversy
Students are often tempted to divide writing into two categories: argumentative and non-argumentative. According to this view, argumentative writing must defend a position in a debate between two or more opposing sides, be on a controversial topic, and must prove the correctness of one point of view over another. These pro/con arguments are common in high school assignments.
A related definition of argument entails a confrontation, a clash of opinions and personalities, or just a plain verbal fight. It implies a winner and a loser, a right side and a wrong one. Because of this understanding of the word “argument,” many students think the only type of argument writing is the debate-like position paper, in which the author defends his or her point of view against other, usually opposing, points of view. The goal in these types of arguments is to “win.”
These two characteristics of argument—as controversial and as a fight—are limiting, though. While pro/con arguments do exist, arguments can come in many forms, from informational to persuasive.
One community that values argument as a type of communication and exchange is the community of scholars. They advance their arguments to share research and new ways of thinking about topics, but the arguments they make are not the win/lose or pro/con arguments many students are familiar with.
Biologists, for example, do not gather data and write up analyses of the results because they wish to fight with other biologists, even if they disagree with the ideas of other biologists. Biologists write articles, books, and reports because they want to share their discoveries and get feedback on their ideas. When historians put forth an argument, they don’t want to win against other historians. Instead, they usually build on the arguments of other historians who came before them. Literary scholars publish their interpretations of different works of literature to enhance understanding and share new views, not necessarily to have one interpretation replace all others.
There are debates within any field of study, but those debates are usually healthy and constructive because their goal is to bring more scholars together to explore the ideas and to further the creation of new knowledge.
Argument Is Not Simple Opinion
Argument is often confused with opinion. As we saw in the example above, if you walked up to a group of people and made a claim about the greatest musical artist of all time with nothing to back you up, you would be voicing an opinion, not an argument.
Although both arguments and opinions are debatable, they have two important differences:
- Arguments have rules; opinions do not. In other words, to form an argument, you must consider whether the argument is reasonable. Is it worth making? Is it valid? Is it sound? Do all of its parts fit together logically? Opinions, on the other hand, have no rules, and anyone asserting an opinion need not think it through for it to count as one; however, it will not count as an argument.
- Arguments have support; opinions do not. If you make a claim and then stop, as if the claim itself were enough to demonstrate its truthfulness, you have asserted an opinion only. An argument must be supported, and the support of an argument has its own rules. The support must also be reasonable, relevant, and sufficient.
Figure 3.1 “Opinion vs Argument”
Arguments Are Not Statements of Fact
Arguments in student writing are also commonly mistaken for statements of fact. This comes about because often people privilege facts over opinions, even as they defend the right to have opinions. Students can make this mistake because it’s often easier to restate facts when they are just beginning to learn about an issue or topic. First Year Composition students might also make this mistake because fact-based reports are the type of writing they are most familiar with.
Remember: An argument must be arguable. Arguable means that the statement is worth arguing, that it has a range of possible answers, angles, or perspectives: It is an answer, angle, or perspective with which a reasonable person might disagree. Facts, by virtue of being facts, are not arguable. Facts are statements that can be definitely proven using objective data. When a fact is established, there is no other side, and there should be no disagreement.
Parts of an Argument
Elements of Argument
Claim: A statement that is essentially arguable or debatable.
Reasons: A statement or statements of support that justifies the argument.
Evidence: Facts, logical reasoning, data, examples or other testimony that strengthens a claim’s validity.
Counterclaim (Counterargument): acknowledged standpoints that go against the original claim.
Now that we’ve discussed what arguments are not, let’s turn to what an argument is.
An argument is a debatable statement, limited by specific premises, that can be supported and proved by evidence.
Every argument has three required parts: Claim, Reasons, and Evidence. As the illustration shows, the claim is the most succinct and focused aspect of any argument. It rests upon the reasons that make it true and the evidence that supports its validity. In this section, we will look at each part of argument individually.
Claim: What Should the Reader Believe?
In an argument paper, the thesis is often called a claim. A claim is an arguable statement. It should be the focused point that a writer, researcher, or speaker makes in order to prove their thesis.
The claim is a statement in which you take a stand on a debatable issue. A strong, debatable claim has at least one valid counterargument, an opposite or alternative point of view that is as sensible as the position that you take in your claim.
Claims are not
- Matters of taste (whether you like something or not)
- Factual (things that everyone agrees are correct)
- Matters of faith (religious beliefs)
Reasons: What Premise(s) that Make Your Claim Valid?
As the illustration above shows, reasons provide a basis for your claims. They also limit your claim in specific ways, because no debatable statement can be true at all times for all situations.
Reasons are statements in an argument that pass two tests:
Test 1: Reasons are answers to these hypothetical challenges to your claim:
-
-
- “Why do you say that?”
- “What reason can you give me to believe that?”
-
Test 2: Reasons can be linked to claims with the word “because”:
-
-
- Liberal arts is best [claim] because it teaches students independent thinking [reason];
- That was Newman’s best [claim] because it presented the most difficult role [reason];
- Global warming is real [claim] because the most reputable science points in that direction [reason].
- Everyone should stop wearing seat belts [claim] because it would save lives [reason].
-
If reasons do not make sense when you apply the “because” test, there is probably something wrong with the logic of the argument. Passing those tests, however, does not insure that arguments are sound and compelling.
Evidence: What Support Proves Your Claim?
A clear claim and logical reasons are not enough to make a complete argument. Writers also need to demonstrate that their reasoning is based on more than just personal opinion. Arguments require evidence to support the relationship between the claim and reasons.
Evidence can take the form of research studies or scholarship, expert opinions, personal examples, observations made by yourself or others, or specific instances that make your reasoning seem sound and believable.
It is also important to use the right kind of evidence, to use it effectively, and to have an appropriate amount of it.
Different fields of study involve types of evidence based on relevance to those fields. For example, a literature course may accept lines from a poem as evidence, where a sociology class likely would not find a poem to be compelling evidence of any claim.
Would a lawyer go to trial with only one piece of evidence? No, the lawyer would want to have as much evidence as possible from a variety of sources to make a viable case. Similarly, a lawyer would fully develop evidence for a claim using explanation, facts, statistics, stories, experiences, research, details, and the like.
Academic writing requires the writer to provide enough evidence to prove your claim sufficiently. One or two pieces of evidence will not be enough to prove most arguments. Similarly, multiple pieces of evidence that aren’t clearly analyzed or thoroughly explained are also insufficient.
Counter Argument: Who Disagrees with Your Claim?
Remember that arguments are always multi-sided. The other sides to any claim are counterarguments.
A strong argument is not afraid to consider perspectives that either challenge or completely oppose its claim. When you respectfully and thoroughly discuss perspectives or research that counters your own claim or even weaknesses in your own argument, you are showing yourself to be an ethical arguer.
A counter argument might
- summarize opposing views
- explain how and where the writer actually agrees with some opposing views
- acknowledge weaknesses or holes in the argument being made
Almost anything claimed in a paper can be refuted or challenged. Opposing points of view and arguments exist in every debate. Anticipating and addressing possible objections to a claim always makes the overall argument stronger.
Examples
Below are a list of statements that appear to be arguments along with explanations about whether they do or do not meet the requirements for an argument.
1: The events in Iran are deeply disturbing because many people are being killed.
This statement makes a claim and has a reason (notice the use of “because), but it is not an argument. Few people would disagree that many people being killed is not disturbing. The reason provided makes this more of a statement of fact.
2. The events in Iran are encouraging because they indicate that the theocratic regime is losing its stability to some degree.
This statement makes a claim and includes a reason. It is an argument. Unlike the first statement, the reason is debatable. It is also measurable, and so would be able to be supported by evidence.
3. An editorial in today’s Post says that the events in Iran are encouraging because they indicate that the theocratic regime is losing its stability to some degree.
This statement does not make a debatable statement. The claim here is that an editorial stated something. This is a fact rather than an argument.
4. You get better news from Trevor Noah than from Brian Williams, like last night’s report from inside Iran on Ibrahim Yazdi.
This statement is debatable, but it is not an argument. It does not include a reason for why it is better to get the news from one source over another, and so it remains an opinion.
5. Because many students are finishing their education and cannot find employment, the government needs to increase student debt relief programs.
This statement reverses the order we’ve talked about, but it is an argument. It includes a claim (what should be done) and a reason for why the claim is valid. It could be supported by evidence (of decreased employment and of the effect of debt relief programs) rather than opinion
Next Steps:
Now that you have a basic vocabulary to talk about argument, it’s important to remember that arguments are always directed at a specific audience for a specific reason. In the next chapter, we’ll apply the principles of the rhetorical situation to our understanding of argument.
Reflect on Your Reading
- What differentiates an argument from an opinion?
- Are arguments always biased? How could a writer craft an unbiased argument?
- Thinking ahead: How do you think the audience, context, and purpose can affect the parts of an argument?
Remixed from:
4.3 Basic Structure and Content of Argument by Amanda Lloyd; Emilie Zickel; Robin Jeffrey; and Terri Pantuso
https://www.comm.pitt.edu/argument-claims-reasons-evidence
Includes CC Licensed Content, Shared Previously
English 112: College Composition II, Lumen Learning, CC-BY-SA.
English Composition 1, Lumen Learning, CC-BY-SA.
Frameworks for Academic Writing, Stephen Poulter, CC-BY-NC-SA.
Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking, Matthew J. Van Cleave, CC-BY.
Methods of Discovery, Pavel Zemilanski, CC-BY-NC-SA.
Writing for Success, CC-BY-NC-SA.
Writing in College: From Competence to Excellence, Amy Guptill, CC-BY-NC-SA.
Image Credits:
“Opinion vs Argument,” by Kalyca Schultz, Virginia Western Community College, derivative image from original by ijmaki, pixabay, CC-0.