2 Carolyn Attneave

The world of psychology has been shaped by remarkable individuals whose work leaves a lasting impact. Carolyn Lewis Attneave, a pioneering American psychologist with Native American roots, is one of those influential figures. This historical review paper aims to comprehensively explore the life and work of Attneave, shedding light on her multifaceted journey, significant achievements, the historical context in which she conducted her pioneering research, and the lasting impact she has had on the field of psychology. Attneave’s life story is a testament to her resilience and unwavering commitment to understanding diverse cultures. Growing up with a deep connection to her American Indian heritage, she learned early on the importance of cultural understanding and acceptance. This childhood lesson, imparted by her grandfather, would go on to shape her career and lead her down a remarkable path of academic exploration and advocacy (American Psychological Association, n.d.). In the following pages, we’ll take a journey through the life and work of Attneave, a trailblazing psychologist whose ideas continue to light the way for those who seek to understand human behavior within the rich tapestry of different cultures.

General Biography

Carolyn Lewis Attneave (1920–1992) stands as a pioneering figure in American psychology, renowned for her groundbreaking work in cross-cultural psychology, family therapy, and her tireless efforts to enhance the mental health of American Indian communities (American Psychological Association, n.d.; Carolyn Attneave, n.d.). Born in El Paso, Texas, in 1920, Attneave’s upbringing was deeply influenced by her maternal ties to the Delaware Tribe of Indians  (Carolyn Attneave, n.d.). Her summers spent in Oklahoma immersed her in the intricacies of American Indian culture, nurturing a profound sense of identity and a deep appreciation for cultural diversity.

After earning her bachelor’s degree in English and Theatre from Chico State College California in 1940, Attneave initially pursued a career in elementary education (American Psychological Association, n.d.). However, World War II led her down an unexpected path when she became one of the first female officers in the Coast Guard. Her service involved crucial research on submarine sinkings, survival guides, and extensive work with children and minorities. It was during this time that she developed a passion for psychology under the mentorship of her supervisor, a psychologist who later directed the National Institutes of Mental Health (NIMH) (Carolyn Attneave, n.d.).

Post-war, Attneave returned to her studies, earning her PhD from Stanford University in 1952 while simultaneously raising her son (Carolyn Attneave, n.d.). Her psychology career then took flight. She held teaching positions at institutions like Texas Technical College and Texas Woman’s University. Her commitment to community mental health began to flourish as she engaged with the mental health needs of American Indian communities in Oklahoma, covering seven distinct tribes. In 1968, a transformative chapter unfolded when Attneave relocated to Philadelphia, collaborating with psychologists Jay Haley and Ross Speck at the Child Guidance Clinic (American Psychological Association, n.d.). Here, she immersed herself in network therapy, a revolutionary approach that extended therapeutic networks beyond immediate families to include neighbors and community members. Her dedication to understanding cultural contexts in therapy became evident during this period, especially in bridging gaps in understanding the experiences of Black clients (Carolyn Attneave, n.d.).

Attneave’s most influential work came in 1973 when she co-authored the seminal book “Family Networks” with Ross Speck, providing comprehensive insights into social network therapy for families (LaFromboise & Trimble, 1996). Her move to Boston marked another pivotal phase, where she founded the Network of Indian Psychologists and the Boston Indian Council, the largest Indian center in the United States. Her association with the Harvard School of Public Health led to invaluable research on the mental health needs of American Indians (Carolyn Attneave, n.d.).

Even in the face of a physical disability, Attneave continued to make substantial contributions to psychology (Carolyn Attneave, n.d.).  Her retirement in 1987 was a brief pause, as she returned to lecturing after undergoing surgery and physical therapy. Attneave’s enduring legacy prompted Stanford University to rename the Serra House as the Carolyn Lewis Attneave House, a tribute recognizing her contributions and inspiring ongoing discussions about Native American contributions to academia. Throughout her life, she embraced collaboration with fellow psychologists, emphasized mentorship for emerging professionals, and ardently promoted unity over competition in the field. In the early 1980s, her research on the Benedictine order guided her towards Catholicism, leading to her conversion late in life. In 1992, Attneave found her final resting place in a Catholic cemetery in Pennsylvania, a testament to her profound faith and the cultural intersections that enriched her remarkable journey (Carolyn Attneave, n.d.).

Important Achievements

Attneave accomplished much throughout her lifetime. One of her most notable works is a book she co-authored her colleague Ross Speck called Family Networks: Retribalization and Healing, which won a “book of the year” award (Heckman-Stone, 2000). The book discusses network therapy. This therapy is designed to help clients develop a supportive care network that includes family members, neighbors, and other community members (Carolyn Attneave, n.d.). It was thought that this therapy could be an alternative to hospitalization.

She also published an article that discusses network therapy using case examples (Attneave, 1969). The article specifically focuses on the use of this therapy in Native American communities. One case she mentions involved a network-clan that had been struggling due to murders, suicide, assault, and the recent death of the leading member. In addition to this, the person who was supposed to be the new network leader was struggling with depression and suicidal ideation. Throughout the article, she notes how the network-clan improved over time. The group gathered and was able to meet and discuss the issues and possible solutions as they saw them. They were also able to work together to accomplish small goals and offered support to the therapist in trying to help their struggling leader. After these positive experiences were shared, appropriate care for their leader was found. Their leader was admitted to a Veterans Affairs hospital where his physical ailments were treated, and he was no longer deemed at risk for suicide. In the end, the network was able to provide their leader with supportive relationships and solutions to practical problems he had been struggling with.

Attneave also co-authored a paper that collected detailed information on the mental health issues that American Indians were seen for at outpatient facilities in 1975 (Rhoades et al., 1980). The study found that the largest mental health issue that American Indians were seen for was some kind of neurosis. The paper describes neurosis as “anxiety, depression, or some other internal conflict” (Rhoades et al., 1980). Out of all the visits for neurosis, 52% were for patients under the age of 40. Alcoholism was the second most common mental health issue that American Indians were seen for. Psychoses and drug abuse and dependence were the third and fourth causes for visits. They also found that referrals during this time were disproportionately made for female individuals 17,219 compared to 12,777 for male individuals. In this paper the authors state that “A determination of what represents deviant or abnormal behavior depends largely on beliefs, traditions, and culture of the observer as well as those of the subject” (Rhoades et al., 1980). This statement perfectly describes the need for cross-cultural studies in clinical and counseling psychology.  It also states the importance of cultural awareness for practitioners.

In addition to publishing her work, Attneave was involved in several organizations, panels, and centers throughout the country. She helped found the Boston Indian Council, which is one of the largest Indian centers in the country (Lafromboise & Fleming, 1990). Attneave was involved in the American Psychological Association and the Massachusetts Psychological Association (Heckman-Stone, 2000). In 1976, she had the honor of being on the president’s Special Panel on Access and Barriers to Mental Health Services and the Special Panel on American Indian Mental Health (Lafromboise & Fleming, 1990). She was later invited as a delegate to the White House conference on families.

Historical Context

Attneave’s work in psychology began in the mid-1940s during World War II. Prior to her beginnings in the field of psychology, Attneave earned multiple baccalaureate degrees, first in English and theater then in elementary education, from Chico State College. She then began pursuing a graduate degree in elementary education from Stanford University. (Trimble & Clearing-Sky, 2009) The circumstances present due to WWII had a significant influence on Attneave’s career path, eventually leading her away from education. During her time at Stanford during the beginning stages of the war, she worked with university faculty to research the educational needs of Japanese Americans in relocation centers. Her graduate studies were put on pause, however, as she was called to duty in the United States Coast Guard Women’s Reserve, also known as SPARS. It was here that she developed an interest in psychology as she participated in a mental health training course directed by Commander Robert Felix. (Lafromboise & Fleming, 1990) After her time serving in WWII, Attneave went on to pursue a doctoral degree in counseling psychology and earned her Ph.D. in 1952.

During this time period, it was typically not easy for women and members of ethnic minorities to earn doctoral degrees or achieve successful career positions in the field of psychology. It is estimated that in the 1960s, there were fewer than 10 doctoral psychologists of Native American background. (Trimble & Clearing-Sky, 2009) Despite these barriers, Attneave reported that her Native American identity “almost never was an issue growing up,” and she was able to secure several job positions in the field after earning her Ph.D. (Lafromboise & Fleming, 1990) Among these positions include teaching child development courses at Texas Technical College, coordinating community guidance services for the Oklahoma State Department of Health, and serving as director of family intervention at Boston State Hospital.

One of the most notable aspects of Attneave’s career was her time at the Philadelphia Child Guidance Clinic beginning in 1968. It was here that she worked with psychiatrist Ross Speck on the concept of network therapy. The two worked together to expand family therapy to include a broader network of support within an individual’s community. In 1973, Attneave joined psychiatrists Morton Beiser and Alexander Leighton at the Harvard School of Public Health researching the mental health needs of American Indians. Attneave also went on to influence Terry Tafoya, another Native American psychologist, as he earned his doctoral degree while working with Attneave. (Lafromboise & Fleming, 1990)

In 1968, the Indian Civil Rights Act was passed to ensure that Native Americans were granted the same constitutional rights as all other Americans. It was around this time that Attneave began working closely with Native American communities to improve their mental health conditions. The passing of this law was a turning point for Native Americans, and Attneave’s work with mental health among this population was additionally influential.

Historical Impact

In tracing the remarkable journey of Carolyn L. Attneave, we have unearthed the layers of a truly visionary psychologist who, with unwavering commitment, reshaped the landscape of psychology. From her childhood lessons on cultural understanding to her pioneering contributions to family therapy and cross-cultural psychology, Attneave’s life and work serve as a testament to the power of empathy, innovation, and resilience.

One of her most notable and lasting contributions, Attneave’s development of network therapy has become a widespread and successful tool in the field of psychology. Network therapy has been put into regular practice in Scandinavia and Great Britain since 1988 (Lafromboise & Fleming, 1990), as well as successfully decreased the number of hospitalizations among mental health patients. In a 1986 study conducted to test the success of network therapy, researchers determined that the number of hospitalizations of individuals who participated in a network therapy program decreased significantly, while the number of hospitalizations among those not in the program increased. (Schoenfeld et al., 1986)

As we conclude our exploration of her life and impact, it is evident that Attneave’s legacy endures, echoing through the halls of psychology. Her writings continue to inspire and guide, bridging the gap between diverse cultures and fostering a deeper understanding of human behavior. The organizations she founded stand as lasting monuments to her dedication to the mental health and well-being of underserved communities. In the rich tapestry of psychology’s history, Attneave is a luminous thread, forever woven into the fabric of understanding, compassion, and progress. Her work reminds us that through empathy and dedication, we can navigate the complex terrain of human behavior, leaving behind a legacy that continues to shape the field for generations to come.

References

American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Featured psychologist: Carolyn Lewis Attneave, Phd. American Psychological Association. https://www.apa.org/pi/oema/resources/ethnicity-health/psychologists/carolyn-lewis-attneave

Attneave, C.L. (1969), Therapy in Tribal Settings and Urban Network Intervention. Family Process, 8: 192-210. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1545-5300.1969.00192.x

Carolyn Attneave. Feminist Voices. (n.d.). https://feministvoices.com/profiles/carolyn-attneave

Dept. of Education Policy Studies, University of Alberta. (1995). Finding Harmony: Balancing Traditional Values with Western Science in Therapy. In First Biannual Indigenous Scholars’ Conference: Autochthonous scholars: Toward an indigenous graduate program, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, March 15-18, 1995 (p. 7). essay.

Heckman‐Stone, C. (2000). A Legacy of Dandelions: Carolyn Lewis Attneave (1920–1992). Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 28(2), 113-118.

Lamfrombroise, T. D., & Fleming, C. (1990). Keeper of the fire: A profile of Carolyn Attneave. Journal of Counseling and Development: Personal and professional perspectives, 68, 225-231.

LaFromboise, T. D., & Trimble, J. E. (1996). Carolyn Lewis Attneave (1920–1992). American Psychologist, 51(5), 549. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.51.5.549

National Institutes of Health. (n.d.). Tribes – Native Voices. U.S. National Library of Medicine. https://www.nlm.nih.gov/nativevoices/timeline/516.html

Rhoades, E. R., Marshall, M., Attneave, C., Echohawk, M., Bjorck, J., & Beiser, M. (1980). Mental health problems of American Indians seen in outpatient facilities of the Indian Health Service, 1975. Public Health Reports, 95(4), 329.

Schoenfeld, P., Halevy, J., Hemley-van der Velden, E., & Ruhf, L. (1986). Long-term outcome of network therapy. Hospital & community psychiatry, 37(4), 373–376. https://doi.org/10.1176/ps.37.4.373

Trimble, J. E., & Clearing-Sky, M. (2009). An historical profile of American Indians and Alaska Natives in psychology. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 15(4), 338–351. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015112