26 Margaret Floy Washburn

General Biography

Margaret Floy Washburn was born an only child to parents Francis Washburn and Elizabeth Floy Davis in New York City on July 25th, 1871. Washburn’s father was a businessman until he decided to enter the Episcopal ministry, while her mother stayed at home as a housewife and caretaker for their child. Finances did not seem to be a huge issue for the family as Washburn’s mother came from a wealthy family herself. Her early education consisted of both private and public school and eventually graduated high school in 1886 at the age of 15 (Goodman, 1980).

Washburn later attended Vassar College in Poughkeepsie, NY, where she excelled in many areas, including chemistry, French, poetry, philosophy, biology, and Greek. After graduating from Vassar in 1891, Washburn found herself intrigued by both philosophy and science, which led her to the newly established Columbia University psychological laboratory (Goodman, 1980). She attended classes at Columbia as a “hearer”, which meant she was only allowed to sit in on classes as an observer since women rarely were accepted into graduate programs during this period in time. She later attended the Sage School of Philosophy at Cornell with experimental psychologist Edward B. Titchener. In 1894, she was acknowledged as the first woman in the United States to earn a PhD in Psychology (Goodman, 1980).

Washburn started her career teaching at a few colleges. From 1894 to 1900, she taught philosophy and psychology at Wells College, traveling back to Cornell often in order to stay in the loop regarding the ideas, events, and people that were a part of the establishment of Cornell as a center for activity in psychology (Goodman, 1980). Shortly after, Washburn became the warden of Sage College, which later led her to an appointment as lecturer for special courses, such as social psychology and animal psychology (Goodman, 1980). She spent a short time at the University of Cincinnati before returning to Vassar College in 1903 as an Associate Professor of Philosophy (Goodman, 1980), where she stayed for the rest of her career.

Because of her expertise regarding animal behavior, it is no surprise that Washburn authored a comparative psychology textbook titled The Animal Mind (1908), as well as a novel on her motor theory of consciousness titled Movement and Mental Imagery (1916). In the early volumes of the American Journal of Psychology, Washburn was a co-editor and earned a spot as one of the top 50 psychologists in the country. Interestingly enough, Washburn never married because she came from an era where women were not allowed to hold both roles of teacher and wife or mother.

Washburn was known as “a forceful personality with a sharp sense of humor moderated by sensitivity to others’ feelings” (Scarborough, 1990). Outside of her career in psychology, she enjoyed activities such as piano playing, singing, ballroom dancing, and oil painting. Washburn had a special love for cats, but was also fascinated by other animals, which likely explains why she was interested in publishing work on animal psychology. On October 29th, 1937, Washburn died in Poughkeepsie, New York, with her death being caused by a stroke (Scarborough, 1990).

Important Achievements

As mentioned previously, one of Washburn’s biggest achievements was being the first woman to earn a PhD in American psychology (from Cornell University) and being the second woman to serve as APA President. While she was not the first woman to complete a doctoral program at a university, she was the first to be granted a degree (American Psychological Association, n.d.). These achievements are important in the field of psychology, as they paved the way for other women to enroll in universities and complete degree programs. They also showed that women were capable of holding high positions in psychological associations.

Washburn also published many books, some of which were mentioned briefly in earlier paragraphs, detailing her experimental studies and theories. One of her notable books is The Animal Mind, published in 1908. This book served as an overview for the experiments she conducted on animal cognition, along with other studies related to animal psychology (Martin, 1940). The Animal Mind became a widely used textbook for studying animal psychology, and went through many different editions over time. It remained a staple for psychology textbooks for almost 25 years (Martin, 1940).

Her most prevalent theory came in the 1916 book Movement and Mental Imagery, where she proposed her motor theory of consciousness. In simple terms, her theory stated that consciousness and motor activity are connected, and because of that, thinking and movement are connected. This was one of the first supported hypotheses for the connection between the mind and the body, specifically body movement. Ideas about movement and thinking are still being studied today, with a recent study suggesting that movement and physical activity could lead to cognitive thinking changes, and could assist in enhancing cognitive reserve (Herald et. al., 2018). It is possible that these more recent studies would not be happening without Washburn’s work.

Washburn published works over the span of 35 years of her life, all of which contained studies and articles written by her. She was also the first woman to be elected to the Society of Experimental Psychologists, an academic group for experimental psychology created by Edward Bradford Titchener in 1904, who originally disallowed women from joining (Martin, 1940). Because of this invitation, and being the first woman to earn a psychology doctorate, Washburn is viewed as a trailblazer for women in the field of psychology. Her continuous work in the field and success in her publishing also showed that women were capable of working and flourishing with academia and experimental research, something that at the time, many believed they were unsuited for.

Historical Context

Arguably, the first major influential person in Washburn’s life may have been psychologist James McKeen Cattell. However, Washburn’s parents were influential all throughout her life through their sharing of literary interests and encouragement (Goodman, 1980).  Washburn was allowed to attend Cattell’s lectures at Columbia University where he later recommended that she apply to Cornell University. This led Washburn to the infamous psychologist, Edward B. Titchener, becoming his first ever doctoral student (Goodman, 1980). After a year at Cornell, Washburn earned an M.A. degree in absentia in 1893. In 1894, she was granted her Ph.D. from Cornell, which was greatly influenced by Titchener’s recommendation (Dallenbach, 1940). His recommendation proved to be beneficial, as women were rarely granted degrees from universities at the time, and even more rarely received recommendations from men in psychology.

Washburn influenced many people throughout her career, but most importantly, her students respected her and some went on to be very successful. Considering Washburn’s success, she paved the way for the next generation of women psychologists. Other women in psychology prominent in this time period included Christine Ladd-Franklin and Mary Whiton Calkins. These three women were the start of a movement to change the way women were perceived, proving to men that women had more to offer to the field of psychology and other areas of expertise (Russo & Denmark, 1987).

Similar to Washburn, June Etta Downey worked alongside Edward B. Titchener at Cornell in 1901. Downey was also interested in the study of motor behavior, and it can be assumed that she was inspired by Washburn in some way, especially considering both women studied with Titchener. The only difference is Downey focused more on personality, graphology, and aesthetics, which was quite different from animal psychology and cognition (Russo & Denmark, 1987).

Women in psychology during this period struggled to receive proper education as it was a male dominated field. More specifically, women who were married or had children had very little opportunity to excel within the field. Some women were even denied the degrees they rightfully earned, and if they did earn their degree, they often struggled to find positions that hired women. It is assumed that Washburn chose not to marry because she knew it would potentially delay or hinder her career in psychology. She instead dedicated her life to her career and research. So much so that, after Mary Whiton Calkins, Washburn served as president of the American Psychological Association (APA) and received the high honor of being named a Fellow of the National Academy of Sciences, being only the second woman to ever receive this honor (Goodman, 1980).

The time of Washburn, or the early 1900s, is considered the Progressive Era and is described as a period of peace, prosperity, and progress (Library of Congress, n.d.). The promise of jobs and higher wages was reason enough for many people to move to larger cities in the United States, which resulted in problems for lower class and working class populations, including starvation, inadequate water supply, disease, and overcrowding (Library of Congress, n.d.). However, because Washburn was considered upper middle class, the Progressive Era provided benefits to her family, and this privilege undoubtedly contributed to her opportunities and success.

Historical Impact

Washburn made a great impact when it comes to the field of psychology. Her work in animal psychology and cognition was her first contribution, and her book The Animal Mind reflected the importance of studying the influence of the brain on animal behavior, including perception, attention, learning, and sensation. What made this book different from other animal studies was the variety of animals Washburn chose to utilize in her research; other psychological experiments with animals at the time only used rats. Washburn’s work led her to conclude that mental processes and consciousness of animals is similar to that of humans, because animals have the same mental structures as humans do (Washburn, 1908). The Animal Mind would go on to be a commonly used textbook in psychology for 25 years, showing the impact of Washburn’s work.

Washburn also contributed her theory of motor consciousness to the world of psychology. This idea outlines that consciousness is linked to movement. This theory was her attempt to branch behaviorism and structuralism, two major psychological systems. Washburn had criticized and scrutinized the structuralist perspective, and used these grievances to create her own theory (Abel, 1927). The development of this theory shows Washburn’s intellectual drive, which likely underscored her later contributions to the field of psychology.

Overall, at a time when women and people of color were discouraged from pursuing education, and even forbidden in some places, Washburn receiving her degree was a major turning point for psychology. Her dedication and thorough work showed that women were just as capable of academic achievements as men. Without the tenacity of Washburn, it may have taken much longer for women to be included in the field of psychology.

References

Abel, T. M. (1927). Washburn’s motor theory: A contribution to functional psychology. The American Journal of Psychology, 39(1/4), 91–105. https://doi.org/10.2307/1415403

American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Margaret Floy Washburn: 1921 APA president. Retrieved February 23, 2023, from https://www.apa.org/about/governance/president/bio-margaret-washburn

Library of Congress (n.d). Cities during the Progressive Era. Retrieved April 7, 2023, from https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/progressive-era-to-new-era-1900-1929/cities-during-progressive-era/

Dallenbach, K. M. (1940). Margaret Floy Washburn 1871-1939. The American Journal of Psychology, 53(1), 1–5. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1415955

Goodman, E. S. (1980). Margaret F. Washburn (1871–1939): first woman Ph. D. in psychology. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 5(1), 69-80.

Herold, F., Hamacher, D, Schega, L. & Muller, N. (2018). Thinking while moving or moving while thinking – concepts of motor-cognitive training for cognitive performance enhancement. Front. Aging Neurosci. 10:288 doi: 10.3389/fnagi.2018.00228

Hudson, G. & Elliott, A. (2005). The impact of the variability hypothesis on Margaret F. Washburn’s and Mary W. Calkins’ paradoxical relations with faculty in their graduate programs. Modern Psychological Studies, Vol 11. No 1. Article 2.

Mabel F. Martin. (1940.) The Psychological Contributions of Margaret Floy Washburn. American Journal of Psychology 53, 7-18.

National Women’s History Museum (n.d.). Margaret Floy Washburn. Retrieved February 23, 2023, from https://www.womenshistory.org/margaret-floy-washburn

Russo, N. F., & Denmark, F. L. (1987). Contributions of women to psychology. Annual Review of Psychology, 38(1), 279-298.

Scarborough, E. (1990). Margaret Floy Washburn (1871–1939). Women in psychology: A bio-bibliographic sourcebook, 342-349.

Washburn, M.F. (1908) The animal mind: A text-book of comparative psychology. Macmillan Company, New York. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.31648

Weinberger, J. (2021, January 28). The incredible influence of women in psychology. Talkspace. https://www.talkspace.com/blog/important-women-in-history-psychology-therapy/

Better Help (n.d.). What did Margaret Floy Washburn contribute to psychology? Retrieved February 24, 2023, from https://www.betterhelp.com/advice/psychologists/what-did-margaret-floy-washburn-contribute-to-psychology/