9 Mamie Phipps Clark

General Biography

Mamie Phipps Clark was born in Hot Springs, Arkansas, in 1917 (“Featured Psychologist,” 2012). She grew up in the South, where Jim Crow and segregation were alive (Rothberg, 2022). Segregation was so embedded into American society that it was seen in schools, workplaces, and even impacted bathrooms and drinking fountains. Clark attended segregated schools throughout her elementary and high school education (“Mamie Clark,” 2006).

Although Clark was an African American in the South, she did have a slightly better experience than her similar peers because her father was a respected physician. In addition, his title allowed him to provide better financial support to his family (“Mamie Clark,” 2006). Clark even noted that although she had experienced and witnessed violence and racism, she felt she had some privilege due to her father’s status (Rothberg, 2022). She also expressed a very happy childhood, despite experiencing racism and segregation (Karera & Rutherford, 2010). Some of this happiness can be tied to her mother staying home since her father could provide financially. Clark graduated high school in 1934 with several scholarships. The cost of higher education was rising, and receiving a scholarship was a great accomplishment. In addition to the cost of education, many colleges at the time restricted admissions of African Americans or segregated them on campus. Thus, Clark ultimately attended Howard University, a Historically Black College or University (or HBCU), to become a math teacher (Butler, 2023).

Clark slowly realized that her chosen departments of mathematics and physics did not fit her personality or goals well, as they felt cold and needed more support (Rothberg, 2022). Around this time, she met Kenneth B. Clark, whom she would later marry. He encouraged her to study psychology, leading to her education and career shift (Butler, 2023). In 1938, Mamie graduated from Howard University with her Bachelor of Arts in Psychology with honors. After graduation, she was a secretary for Charles Hamilton Houston, an NAACP lawyer (Rothberg, 2022). This experience helped shape her interest in African American identification and inspired some of her later work. Clark pursued her Master’s Degree in Psychology at Howard University, along with her husband (“Featured Psychologist,” 2012). Once she completed her Master’s, Clark was accepted into the psychology graduate program at Columbia University, where she began her Ph.D. in 1940 (Rothberg, 2022).

The Clarks were the only African Americans in their departments at Columbia University. This led to a much harder time in graduate school. To add to her challenges, Mamie worked with a professor, Henry Garret, a racist, eugenicist, and supporter of segregation. This challenge alone would make most people want to quit, but not Clark. Although she faced these challenges, she graduated from Columbia University in 1943, making her one of the first women to receive a Ph.D. in psychology and the first African American woman to reach this accomplishment. In addition, Clark and her husband received a fellowship from 1940-1942, which allowed them to complete research on racial identity (Rothberg, 2022).

After graduation, Clark had a hard time finding a job. It was rare to see a Black woman with a degree, let alone a doctorate. The jobs she could secure were well below her qualifications. After several years of job troubles, Clark took a job as a psychologist, which led her in her preferred direction. The job allowed her to notice the lack of mental health resources for African American children. Clark attempted to get more resources for the Harlem community, but consistently faced pushback (Butler, 2023). This did not leave her with her hands tied, though. Clark and her husband decided to open Northside Center for Child Development in 1946. The Northside Center was located in Harlem, New York, an area populated with many minorities that did not have access to mental health services. This center, which is still open today, assisted with the problems faced by African American children, and was able to provide psychological services to the community (Butler, 2023). Clark remained working at the center until her retirement in 1980 (“Mamie Clark,” 2006). She died three years later, in 1983, after battling lung cancer (Rothberg, 2022). Clark’s life meant many things to many people, but her achievements have been etched into our history.

Important Achievements

While at Howard University, Clark worked on her master’s thesis, titled “The Development of Consciousness of Self in Negro Pre-School Children” (“Mamie Clark,” 2006). During Clark’s research, she gathered data from 150 African American children from Washington, D.C., to help support her thesis. Her goal was to examine the issues of race and child development among African American children. She also looked at race consciousness, or when a person could recognize they belonged to a particular group based on physical features. Clark’s data showed that children became aware of their race around age 4 or 5 (Rothberg, 2022). This inspired her to understand the identification and awareness of this population and led her to conduct The Doll Test research.

Clark worked very hard during her life, which led to incredible findings. Unfortunately, most textbooks credit Clark’s husband for her work in The Doll Test, noting both names but failing to acknowledge that it was primarily her research (Cramblet Alvarez et al., 2020). The Doll Test was an expansion of Clark’s master’s thesis. Their work entailed the use of four identical dolls except for their skin color. African American children ages 3-7 were asked questions measuring racial preferences and perceptions. During their study, Clark found that most of the children preferred White dolls with lighter hair tones (McNeill, 2017). The children also viewed the dolls with lighter skin tones as having more positive traits and the ones with darker skin tones as having more negative characteristics. The Clarks attributed these perceptions to segregation and racism, and the feelings of inferiority African American children held while growing up. Overall, the Clarks argued their results showed that segregation was harmful and impacted the self-esteem of young African American children (Rothberg, 2022).

This Doll Test research gained much recognition and is still referred to today. Clark’s husband, Kenneth, was called to testify in several desegregation cases as an expert witness. The most notable case was the Brown vs. Board of Education Supreme Court case in 1954 (“Featured Psychologist,” 2012). Clark was able to provide overwhelming evidence of the adverse effects of segregation, and The Doll Test research and testimony contributed to the decision to end segregation in public schools.

As mentioned before, Clark was among the first African American women to receive a Ph.D. in psychology. This was a great accomplishment and an important one to recognize. Her hard work and dedication opened the way for other women, especially women of color. Her hard work was awarded in 1973, when Clark received the American Association of University Women Achievement Award. This award recognized Clark’s dedication to the mental health field. In addition, in 1983, Clark received the Candace Award for Humanitarianism from the National Coalition of 100 Black Women (McNeill, 2017).

Historical Context

Before and during the time of Clark’s significant achievements, a lot was happening in the world. Some of the more notable things in her early years were World War II, the Great Depression, and segregation (Rothberg, 2022). Clark grew up in a segregated society, and that experience was her norm. Clark noted that after receiving her undergraduate degree, she finally began to think things could change, especially regarding segregation (Karera & Rutherford, 2010). The U.S. was divided then, so Clark’s perceptions differed significantly from those of her colleagues. This difference shaped her personality, ambitions, and career. Clark faced many challenges as an African American woman in academia, and these challenges influenced her desire to change things, as she experienced these issues differently (Rothberg, 2022).

Clark’s father was able to financially support her during school, but it was challenging to attend Howard University during the financial struggles of the Great Depression. Although Clark had this support, many people still needed help putting food on the table and attending school. One of the heavily impacted communities was in Harlem, as they struggled with access to resources and the education system. During her career, Clark would go on to help this community by establishing the Northside Center for Child Development (Rothberg, 2022).

In Clark’s later life, the Civil Rights movement began to take off. The effects of segregation had impacted thousands of people, and for a long time, it was justified. However, this shifted when Clark began her research and working within the communities most impacted (Atari, 2022). At the time, there was little research regarding children’s racial identification and awareness. Clark drew some inspiration from Ruth and Gene Horowitz and their work with racial self-identification in African American nursing school children. Their work and Clark’s master’s thesis ultimately led her to conducting The Doll Test studies (Atari, 2022).

Another significant influence on Clark was her husband, Kenneth. He was the one to push her to pursue psychology and remain in it. He assisted her in many projects and advocated for her to get the credit she deserved. Not only was she influenced by other figures in the field, but she went on to influence others. As mentioned before, she significantly influenced public school desegregation and, ultimately, further research on child identity and the impact of racism (Butler, 2023).

Historical Impact

Clark greatly impacted the field of psychology with her famous Doll Test research. This experiment is often recalled and has led to other research. One study aimed to reexamine Clark’s research and further her findings. The researchers found that Black children preferred white characters and still gave them positive traits almost 60 years after the original research (Jordan & Hernandez-Reif, 2009). In addition, Clark’s work was furthered by adding the aspect of gender. The goal was to see if gender and race would change the results. The two researchers found that, on average, the participants viewed girls of both races as helpful. However, there was favoritism shown toward the White girls. (Jensen & Tisak, 2020). These are just two recent examples of Clark’s work inspiring others to further the research on racial identification and its effects.

Not only has Clark impacted the field of psychology on a research level, but also on a more personal level. Clark created a legacy via the Northside Center of Child Development. It remains open today and was the first place to provide therapy in Harlem and aid those needing housing assistance. The center has since expanded to provide even more services to the community, including parenting classes, vocational guidance, tutoring, and nutritional classes. This center became a hub for activism for the Harlem community (Rothberg, 2022).

Clark’s legacy in the Harlem community went beyond the center. She teamed with her husband on a project called Harlem Youth Opportunities Unlimited, which gave education and employment opportunities to the younger population of Harlem. Although the project did not last long, many teens were saved from troubled paths with the guidance and opportunities the Clarks created for them. The two were crucial in decreasing unemployment among teens who did not finish high school. Clark’s passion for childcare even expanded past the Harlem community. Clark was a key player in starting the national Head Start program. She also served on the boards of several institutions involving education and philanthropy work (Karera & Rutherford, 2010).

In addition, Clark made it possible for more women to enter the field of psychology. When she first began her career, only about 30% of APA members were women (Lal, 2002). Today, women of all races can pursue higher education in psychology because of women like Clark. Furthermore, she opened doors for other women of color to attend prestigious colleges like Columbia University.

References

American Psychological Association. (2012). Featured psychologists: Mamie Phipps Clark, Phd, and Kenneth Clark, Phd. American Psychological Association. https://www.apa.org/pi/oema/resources/ethnicity-health/psychologists/clark

Atari, B. (2022, May 10). Mamie Phipps Clark: The pioneering psychologist behind the famed “dolls test”. The Dig at Howard University. https://thedig.howard.edu/all-stories/mamie-phipps-clark-pioneering-psychologist-behind-famed-dolls-test

Butler, S. N. (2023, February 21). Mamie Katherine Phipps Clark (1917–1983). Encyclopedia of Arkansas. https://encyclopediaofarkansas.net/entries/mamie-katherine-phipps-clark-2938/

Cjersti J. Jensen & Marie S. Tisak (2020). Precedents of prejudice: race and gender differences in young children’s intergroup attitudes. Early Child Development and Care, 190:9, 1336-1349, DOI: 10.1080/03004430.2018.1534845

Clark, K. B., & Clark, M. P. (1950). Emotional factors in racial identification and preference in Negro children. Journal of Negro Education, 19, 341–350. https://doi-org.ezproxy.library.und.edu/10.2307/2966491

Columbia University Libraries Oral History Research Office (2006) Mamie Clark. Notable New Yorkers. http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/digital/collections/nny/clarkm/index.html

Cramblet Alvarez, L. D., Leach, J. L., Rodriguez, J. L., & Jones, K. N. (2020). Unsung psychology pioneers: A content analysis of who makes history (and who doesn’t). The American Journal of Psychology, 133(2), 241–262. https://doi.org/10.5406/amerjpsyc.133.2.0241

Jordan, P., & Hernandez-Reif, M. (2009). Reexamination of young children’s racial attitudes and skin tone preferences. Journal of Black Psychology, 35(3), 388–403. https://doi-org.ezproxy.library.und.edu/10.1177/0095798409333621

Karera, A., & Rutherford, A. (2010). Mamie Phipps Clark. Feminist Voices. https://feministvoices.com/profiles/mamie-phipps-clark

Lal, S. (2002). Giving children security: Mamie Phipps Clark and the racialization of child psychology. American Psychologist, 57(1), 20–28. https://doi-org.ezproxy.library.und.edu/10.1037/0003-066X.57.1.20

McNeill, L. (2017, October 26). How a psychologist’s work on race identity helped overturn school segregation in 1950s America. Smithsonian.com. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/psychologist-work-racial-identity-helped-overturn-school-segregation-180966934/

Rothberg, E. (2022). Dr. Mamie Phipps Clark. National Women’s History Museum. https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/dr-mamie-phipps-clark

U.S. Department of the Interior. (2022, August 18). Kenneth and Mamie Clark doll. National Parks Service. https://www.nps.gov/brvb/learn/historyculture/clarkdoll.htm