1.1.2 What is an Academic Purpose?

Academic is being used here in a very particular sense. By academic, I mean artificial. I mean it in the same sense a football announcer does when in the last minute of of a 42-17 game he says, “It’s all academic now.” He means there is nothing either team can do to change the score. All efforts are futile, and yet both teams continue to go through the motions either as a formality, because they want to practice, or because they love the game. In that sense, the academic purpose is an artificial construct that has you identifying an imaginary purpose and writing to an imaginary audience. Sometimes you are given some latitude in determining the purpose, while other times you may be assigned a purpose. Then, after you have determined the audience and write your best argument, that audience may never actually read it. This is the game we usually play in English composition class, and although it seems futile, signing on to that purpose will ultimately make the class less like a chore and more like a good movie or an engaging game.

1.2 The Writing Table

To begin, imagine a table. A writing table. There is nothing on this table before you arrive except for, perhaps, a blank sheet of paper. What do you bring to the table? May I suggest, you bring your ME to the table, where ME is an acronym for Mindset and Ethos. You have ideas and experiences, to be sure, but these two items are the first and most important.

1.2.1 Mindset

If, after weighing the importance of a letter on your college transcript against becoming a better writer, you decide that the letter on the transcript is the most important thing, odds are that you bring a fixed mindset to the table, whereas if you decide the most important thing is to grow as a writer, then odds are that you bring a growth mindset to the table.

1.2.1.1 Fixed Mindset

In terms of writing, a fixed mindset is based on the fundamental belief that writing ability is innate: either a person is born with it, or they are not. Whether you think you are a good writer or a bad writer, if you have a fixed mindset, you don’t believe you can  change that much. If you are already a good writer with a fixed mindset, you might be able to get an A in a composition class without becoming better at all. If you are a bad writer with a fixed mindset, you just have to play it as conservatively as possible and try to jump through all the hoops as best you can to get the highest grade you can, given your innate lack of talent.

1.2.1.2 Growth Mindset

Writers with growth mindsets understand that learning to write is a lifelong process. They are always engaged in the process of becoming. Do not fear mistakes. There  are none. -Miles Davis Like other artists, writers never really arrive. There is always room to get better, and an advanced composition class is just another opportunity to practice. The writer with the growth mindset, whether they consider themself a good writer or a bad writer, knows that wherever they are in the process of becoming, they got there through practice. Few people ever become worse at something through practice. They make mistakes, of course, but the growth mindset sees every mistake as an opportunity for growth.

 

To get anything out of this handbook, you’ll need to take the fixed mindset off the table, and replace it with a growth mindset by embracing challenges, inviting honest feedback rather than seeking praise, taking risks, cultivating curiosity, and practicing persistence. If you agree with the following statement, just add the word “yet” to it, and you are ready to go:

Without yet: I am not the most effective writer.

With yet: I am not the most effective writer yet.

1.2.2 Ethos

Another thing you bring to the table is ethos. Invented ethos is something you will add, but at the beginning it is only situated ethos that you bring to the table. If you aren’t sure what situated ethos is, jump to the ethos chapter and read up on it real quickly. Rhetoric is not just the reputation you have in the community, but the actual quality of your character. While quality of character might mean different things to each of you, in each case it is the backbone of situated ethos. Below is a chart that details what quality of character, or virtue, meant to Aristotle. He offers that certain “fields of feeling” might have good and bad aspects, but that the fundamental spirit of character is capturing the best essence of the virtue, which he shows in the middle column of the chart. Because a virtuous character is so central to classical rhetoric, any aspiring writer, which we all are now that a fixed mindset is off the table, should think about constructing their own chart, and to aspire to the highest virtues they can imagine for themself.

1.3 I

Now that you have your ME at the table, there is one more thing to remember, and that is your I. Previous experience in English composition classes might have taught you that your I should be left out of academic writing, and while that is true to some extent, it is less true than ever in college writing. Since rhetoric is more about choices and their consequent effects, I encourage you to always keep your I on the table. Remember that leaving I out usually has the effect of making the writer seem more objective, but at the same time, it has the effect of distancing you from your reader. You will notice in this chapter I use the I voice, and that is because I think it is more appropriate to use while talking about you, the writer. If you want to explore the benefits of keeping I on the table, check out the essay “I Need you to say I: Why First Person is Important in College Writing” by Kate Mckinney Maddalena.

1.3.1 Who am I?

Once you have taken a fixed mindset off the table, the rhetorical situation is changed. If you have decided that your overall purpose is to grow as a writer, that is still on the table, but that is no longer part of the academic rhetorical situation you will pursue as you compose an argumentative research essay. The old model of the rhetorical situation is off the table:

Old Rhetorical Situation

• Writer: You
• Purpose: To get a grade.
• Audience: The Instructor.

New Rhetorical Situation

• Writer: You
• Purpose: To be determined by you through the process of invention.
• Audience: To be determined by the purpose.

Later you will find it useful to ask questions about authors that may be writing in other rhetorical situations, but as you prepare to write, the focus is on you. This should be a time of introspection, where you analyze yourself in exactly the same way you analyze your audience. It is a good idea to complete the audience worksheet for both you and your audience, since your values, opinions, attitudes, beliefs, and biases are just as important as those of your audience. Make sure to ask yourself these questions both before beginning to write:

• Why am I writing?
• What are my beliefs regarding this topic?
• What are my opinions on this topic?
• What are my attitudes toward this topic?
• What are my attitudes toward my potential audience?
• How am I similar to/different from my potential audience?
• What am I curious about in regard to this topic?
• What personal experiences do I have that inform this topic?
• In what ways am I an authority on this topic?
• What are my biases regarding this topic?

1.4 Awareness

1.4.1 Rhetorical Awareness

Rhetorical awareness is a term that refers to the ability to identify and parse rhetorical situations, which consist of writers, purposes, and context. The context can include historical, cultural, geographical, or other contextual frames. All of these factors taken together then determine the genre. A writer who has a high rhetorical awareness can see these elements in all sorts of diverse situations, from the television news, to print advertisements, to ordering a drink at McDonald’s. But there is an even higher level of awareness that is important to writers as well, and that kind of awareness can only come in a sustainable way from contemplative practices.

1.4.2 Contemplative Practices

Meditation is only one among many types of contemplative practices, but what they all have in common is the intention to escape from words and experience the world directly in the moment: mindfulness. Ironically, some people use writing itself, which necessarily involves words, as a contemplative practice. Below are a few contemplative practices.

1.4.2.1 Meditation

Find a quiet spot to sit.

1. Set a 20-minute timer with a gentle sound that will alert you when the time is up.
2. Close your eyes and pay attention to the sound and feel of your breath. Don’t breathe differently, just focus your attention on the breath.
3. If a thought occurs to you let it float gently past like a cloud or visualize yourself writing it on a sheet of paper. In a variation of this for writers, try writing the thought down in one word on a sticky note and throwing it into an empty trash can. Later you can go through the sticky notes and see what is really cluttering up your brain!

1.4.1.2 5 Senses Centering Activity

Find an interesting place where you can sit without being disturbed.

1. Write down five things you can see.
2. Close your eyes. Note 4 things you can hear.
3. Note 3 things you can feel.
4. Note 2 things you can smell.
5. Note one thing you can taste.

1.4.1.3 Breathe

1. Install the Breathe app on your i-phone and use it or count the following breathing intervals manually for at least 5 cycles.
2. Inhale for 4 seconds
3. Hold for 7 seconds.
4. Exhale for 8 seconds.
5. End hold.
6. Repeat.

1.5 Cognitive Biases

A cognitive bias is a state of mind or a way of thinking that closes your thinking to certain possibilities, or distorts your thinking in a way that is undesirable. Wikipedia has compiled a huge list of them, but here are just a few that writers are particularly susceptible to. These biases apply to both the writer and the audience, but in order to be clear minded and aware, the writer should be aware of her own biases before making a claim and conducting research.

1.5.1 Anchoring

The tendency to rely too heavily, or “anchor”, on one trait or piece of information when making decisions or seeking new information (usually the first piece of information acquired on that subject).

1.5.2 Attentional Bias

The tendency of perception to be affected by recurring or persistent thoughts. Note that the contemplative practices above can help with this.

1.5.3 Availability Heuristic

The tendency to overestimate the likelihood of events with greater “availability” in memory, which can be influenced by how recent the memories are or how unusual or emotionally charged they may be.

1.5.4 Backfire Effect

The reaction to disconfirming evidence by strengthening one’s previous beliefs.

1.5.5 Belief Bias

An effect where someone’s evaluation of the logical strength of an argument is biased by the believability of the conclusion.

1.5.6 Compassion Fade

The predisposition to behave more compassionately towards a small number of identifiable victims than to a large number of anonymous ones.

1.5.7 Clustering Illusion

The tendency to overestimate the importance of small runs, streaks, or clusters in large samples of random data (that is, seeing phantom patterns)

1.5.8 Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, focus on and remember information in a way that confirms one’s preconceptions

1.5.9 Decoy Effect

Preferences for either option A or B change in favor of option B when option C is presented, which is completely dominated by option B (inferior in all respects) and partially dominated by option A

1.5.10 Distinction Bias

The tendency to view two options as more dissimilar when evaluating them simultaneously than when evaluating them separately.

1.5.11 Expectation Bias

The tendency for experimenters to believe, certify, and publish data that agree with their expectations for the outcome of an experiment, and to disbelieve, discard, or downgrade the corresponding weightings for data that appear to conflict with those expectations.

1.5.12 Groupthink

The psychological phenomenon that occurs within a group of people in which the desire for harmony or conformity in the group results in an irrational or dysfunctional decision-making outcome. Group members try to minimize conflict and reach a consensus decision without critical evaluation of alternative viewpoints by actively suppressing dissenting viewpoints and by isolating themselves from outside influences.

1.5.13 Irrational Escalation

The phenomenon where people justify increased investment in a decision, based on the cumulative prior investment, despite new evidence suggesting that the decision was probably wrong. Also known as the sunk cost fallacy.

1.5.14 Leveling and Sharpening

Memory distortions introduced by the loss of details in a recollection over time, often concurrent with sharpening or selective recollection of certain details that take on exaggerated significance in relation to the details or aspects of the experience lost through leveling. Both biases may be reinforced over time, and by repeated recollection or re-telling of a memory.

1.5.15 Misinformation Effect

Memory becoming less accurate because of interference from post-event information

1.5.16 Mood Congruent Memory Bias

The improved recall of information congruent with one’s current mood.

1.5.17 Overconfidence Effect

Excessive confidence in one’s own answers to questions. For example, for certain types of questions, answers that people rate as “99% certain” turn out to be wrong 40% of the time.

1.5.18 Proportionality Bias

Our innate tendency to assume that big events have big causes, may also explain our tendency to accept conspiracy theories

1.5.19 Salience Bias

The tendency to focus on items that are more prominent or emotionally striking and ignore those that are unremarkable, even though this difference is often irrelevant by objective standards.

1.5.20 Selective Perception

The tendency for expectations to affect perception.

1.5.21 Semmelweis Reflex

The tendency to reject new evidence that contradicts a paradigm.

1.5.22 Suggestability

A form of misattribution where ideas suggested by a questioner are mistaken for memory.

1.5.23 Testing Effect

The fact that you more easily remember information you have read by rewriting it instead of rereading it.

1.5.24 von Restorff Effect

That an item that sticks out is more likely to be remembered than other items

These are just a few of the many biases that affect our thinking. There are hundreds more, so any time you start to think you don’t have bias, check those that are listed here, and then check the “List of Cognitive Biases” at www.Wikipedia.org for more. These are not only biases that you might have, but audiences your sources might have as well. Anytime you are looking for bias, check this list. Humans are notorious for harboring complex networks of irrational biases.

1.6 Kairos and the Writer

1.6.1 Currency

It isn’t hard for writers of any age to lapse into irrelevancy. As writers move from one age group to the next, they are likely to lose touch with the discourse communities they might have just left behind. Of course, as a writer, it is important to be “in tune” with the audience or discourse community you are addressing, but it is just as important to at least remain aware of current trends. Aside from cultivating and satisfying a sense of curiosity and a growth mindset, here are some specific ways to stay in touch with both the old and the new. All of them are ways of listening, just in more general ways than those described in the Memory: Intertextuality I chapter. Also, while some might suggest that you focus your listening on more academic or informational sources, it is important to pay attention to popular sources as well, since that is where popular culture gets recorded.

1.6.1.1 Reading

Both reading print and online texts helps keep your vocabulary current as well, since you learn both new words, new usages of old words, and new contexts for words.

1.6.1.1.1 General Reading

It is a good idea for a writer to keep a reading schedule that includes general reading, even if they are working on a project that requires them to focus their attention on a specific topic. This reading should be diverse, including works of different genres and time periods both old and new. It is interesting to note that some of the most well-known innovators, including Warren Buffet, who dedicates 80% of his day to reading; Bill Gates, who reads 50 books a year; Mark Cuban, who reads 3 hours a day; and Elon Musk, who learned how to build a rocket by reading, see reading as foundational to their success. ^[1]

1.6.1.1.2 Reading Online

Browsing the internet and reading online are great ways of staying current, but they do come with their own set of unique problems, primarily because the way we read online is very different than the way we read a printed text. Fortunately, there are strategies for reading productively online.

1.6.1.1.2.1 How Reading Works

1.6.1.1.2.1.1 Transactive!

Reading is a “transactive” process. That just means there is a transaction, an exchange going on between your brain and the text. Neuroscientists say that 10 times more information is being sent from the prefrontal cortex than is being received from the text.

1.6.1.1.2.1.2 Filling in the Blanks

We read words like they are a gestalt – that just means we look for patterns and fill in the blanks to save time. You might have seen the following example, which you can probably read with ease even with many of the letters missing from each word:

Aoccdrnig to a rscheearch at Cmabrigde Uinervtisy, it deosn’t mttaer in waht oredr the ltteers in a wrod are, the olny iprmoatnt tihng is taht the frist and lsat ltteers be at the rghit pclae. The rset can be a toatl mses and you can sitll raed it wouthit porbelm. Tihs is bcuseae the huamn mnid deos not raed ervey lteter by istlef, but the wrod as a wlohe.”

1.6.1.1.2.1.3 The Phenomenology of Reading

phe·nom·e·nol·o·gy

/fəˌnäməˈnäləjē: an approach that concentrates on the study of consciousness and the objects of direct experience.

Maurice Merlieu-Ponty, a phenomenologist, says that when we read we look through the letters to the image the words evoke – the words themselves almost seem invisible.

1.6.1.1.2.1.4 Saccades and Fixations

We read in a jerky motion, really focusing on only one word and a few that surround it before jumping to the next. In eye-gaze studies of how we read, the distance we jump is called a saccade, and the word we focus on is called a fixation. When we read a print textbook we “fixate” on about 60% of the words, whereas when we read an online textbook we only fixate on about 30% of the words.