Appendix G – Basic Grammar Handbook

Dr. Ben Varner

Dr. Ben Varner

G Basic Grammar

This basic grammar handbook, provided by Dr. Ben Varner, is a supplement to Chapter 12 “Style: Grammatical Effectiveness.”

G1 Writing Clear Sentences

G1.1 Complete Sentences

Write grammatically complete sentences – Each sentence you write should contain the following three items: (1) a subject, (2) a finite verb (a verb that does not end with “ing”), and (3) a completely expressed idea. If any of these three is missing, you will have written a sentence fragment.

G1.2 Comma Splices and Run-On Sentences

Avoid comma splices and run-on sentences – A comma splice is the mistake of hooking together two independent clauses (two complete sentences) with only a comma. Use instead a period or a semicolon. A run-on is the running together of two independent clauses with no punctuation between them at all.

The skiing in Aspen is great, you should try it sometime.

The skiing in Aspen is great you should try it sometime.

G1.3 Subject-Verb Agreement

Verbs must agree with their subjects. If the subject of the sentence is singular, the verb that matches up with it must be singular also; if the subject is plural, then the verb must be plural. Remember that singular verbs often end with the letter “s”; plural verbs usually omit the “s.”

G1.4 Pronoun/Antecedent Agreement

Pronouns must agree with their antecedents. Pronouns are words that can be substituted for nouns (the antecedents). If the antecedent for which the pronoun is substituted is singular, then the pronoun must also be singular; if the antecedent is plural, then the pronoun must be plural.

G1.5 Pronoun Clarity

Pronouns must have a clear meaning. You should make sure that every pronoun used in your sentences has a clear meaning; otherwise, you may write such confusing sentences as the following:

The dog barked at the cat before it ran under the house.

I have seen the advertisement for Coors’ beer, but I do not like it.

G1.6 Misplaced Modifiers

Avoid writing dangling and misplaced modifiers. Dangling modifiers (also known as dang mods!) are groups of words that begin a sentence and wind up modifying the wrong noun or pronoun:

Walking across the busy intersection, my wallet fell out of my pocket. (Was the wallet walking?)

Misplaced modifiers are groups of words that are in the wrong location in the sentence:

The police described the suspect as a young man with a mustache driving a red car. (Was the mustache driving?)

A modifier is said to be “dangling” because it is not doing its job properly. There are two ways to correct a dangling modifier:

put the right noun or pronoun into the modifier
put the right noun or pronoun into the clause that follows the modifier.

G1.7 Parallelism

Parallelism is involved whenever you have written a sentence containing two or more items of equal importance. Each item must be written in the same way, or you may wind up writing awkward sentences like the following:

The team’s place kicker ended up kicking and pleasing the coach.

The new student was confused, frustrated, and could not find his way around campus.

Whenever you have written a sentence containing two or more items of equal importance, then you must make sure that each item is written in the same way. If one item is described as an adjective and the other item is described as a noun, for example, then you must make both items one or the other. If you do not, then the sentence will violate the parallelism of the ideas, and the sentence will be confusing.

G1.8 Active Voice

Use the active voice over the passive voice. Most English sentences are constructed with the subject-verb-object word order. By far, most of your sentences should be written in that order. The passive voice is a tampering with that word order, and as a result, it is not always clear who is doing what to whom:

It has been decided that thirty percent of the employees will be laid off. (Passive voice)

The boss has decided that thirty percent of the employees will be laid off. (Active voice)

Most good English sentences contain the subject-verb-object order, and that is called the active voice. “Voice” means the relationship of the verb to the subject. In the active voice, the subject clearly acts. In the passive voice, however, the subject is acted upon and sometimes the reader becomes confused as to who is doing what to whom. Avoid the passive voice as much as you can (although it is useful in certain circumstances) and write by far most of your sentences in the active voice.

G1.9 Wordiness

Avoid wordiness–This is perhaps the most important bit of advice on this list. Be concise in your sentence writing. Use plain English whenever possible instead of big words, and remember to write sentences that average between fifteen and twenty words. Sentences that average more than twenty words are usually wordy!

It really is easy to be wordy. The following is a chart to help you be wordy if you want (not recommended). Let’s say that you’ve got an assignment to write a document, but you have procrastinated until the night before. Don’t worry! Just take out this chart and follow these simple instructions: choose any number from one through ten from Table A, then do the same for each of the tables. In just a few moments, you will have constructed an impressive-sounding sentence that says absolutely nothing at all! See?

That’s wordiness.

You may also juggle the tables around once you become more confident. However, if you do play with them, then do be careful about your punctuation. Don’t make extra work for yourself.

An excellent way to avoid wordiness in your writing is to use a good “readability index.” This index corresponds to grade school levels. One popular index is that created by Robert Gunning in his Technique of Clear Writing (1968). According to this formula, you figure out the average length of your sentences, count the average number of three-syllable words per hundred words of copy, add the two sums, and multiply by .4, getting your index.

I have applied this index to a number of selected documents, and here is what I have found: my car insurance policy (20), the Wall Street Journal (12), the Reader’s Digest (6), and Surgeon General Koop’s AIDS pamphlet mailed to every home in the country (4).

The lesson to be learned is not that most Americans read poorly but that you need to write all of your important documents with the reader’s educational background in mind. The most effective business writing scores between an 8 and a 12; technical writing between an 8 (for the managers) and a 14 (for the technicians); and college writing between a 12 and a 16. If you go beyond the top number for your audience, then you are probably being wordy.

Remember too that a simple way of avoiding wordiness is to keep your sentences to between 15 and 20 words (rarely going beyond 30)-and always stay away from using big words unless you are certain that your reader will know their meanings.

The following is a list of wordy and overused expressions that you should avoid in your writing. The expressions are listed on the left, and their plain English meanings are listed within parentheses on the right. Any expressions that should be omitted completely from your writing will have an “X” in the parentheses on the right.

G1.9.1 Wordy Expressions to Avoid

above, the above	this; them
above-mentioned	mentioned above
above-referenced	referred to above
acknowledge	DO NOT USE
acknowledge receipt of	received
actually	DO NOT USE
advise	tell; inform
afford an opportunity to	allow
aforementioned	DO NOT USE
a majority of	most; many
a lot of	most; many
anticipate	expect; look forward to
and/or	X or Y or both
a number of	many; most
appreciate it if you would	please
as	because or since
as per	according to
as a matter of fact	in fact
as a means of	for; to
as a result	so
as of this date	now
as of this writing	now
as to	about
as yet	still
at all times	always
at an early date	soon
at a later date	later
at the present time	now
at that point in time	then
at this point in time	now
at the present writing	now
at the same time as	while
attached hereto; attached herewith	attached is
attached please find	attached is
balance	rest; remainder
because of the fact that	because
beg	DO NOT USE
be good enough to; be kind enough to	please
bring to a conclusion	conclude
by means of	by
by use of	by
by virtue of the fact that	because; since
came to the realization that	realized
come to the conclusion that	decided; concluded
connected together	connected; joined
consensus of opinion	consensus
contact	call; write
contents gratefully noted	DO NOT USE
costs the sum of	costs
despite the fact that	although
due course of time	soon
due to the fact that	because, since
during the time that	while
during this period of time	meanwhile
each and every	each; all
earliest convenience	soon
employed the use of	used
enclosed herewith	enclosed
end result	result
exhibit a tendency	tend
feel	think; believe
first and foremost	first
first of all	first
for a period of	for
for the purpose of	for; to
for this reason	because; since
have before us	have
herewith, hereto, herein	DO NOT USE
I remain, I beg to remain	DO NOT USE
I wish to state	DO NOT USE
I regret to inform you that	DO NOT USE
if and when	it
in an area where	where
in an effort to	to
inasmuch as	because; since
in close proximity to	near
in connection with	about
in lieu of	instead of
in the amount of	for
in the event that	when; it
in the matter of	about
in the month of May	in May
in the year of 1992	in 1992
in this day and age	today
in order to	to
in order that	so
in receipt of	received
in reference to	about
in regard to	regarding
in the event that	if
in the foreseeable future	soon
in spite of the fact that	although
in such a manner as to	to
in terms of	in; for
in the course of	during
in the direction of	toward
in the event that	if
in the final analysis	finally
in the form of	as
in the neighborhood of	about; approximately
in the vicinity of	about; approximately
involves the use of	uses
involves the necessity of	requires
in view of the fact that	since
in the matter of	regarding
in my opinion, in our opinion	DO NOT USE
it can be seen that	so; thus
it is considered desirable	we want to
it is important to remember that	DO NOT USE
it is interesting to note	DO NOT USE
it is obvious that	obviously
it will be necessary to	we must
kindly	please
let me say, may I say	DO NOT USE
last but not least	finally
meet with your approval	approve of
near future	soon
needless to say	DO NOT USE
not in a position to	unable; cannot
of considerable magnitude	large
off of	off
on account of the fact that	because; since
on or before	by
on the occasion of	on
party	person; group
per	according to
permit me to say	DO NOT USE
peruse, perusal	read
please don’t hesitate to	DO NOT USE
please feel free to	DO NOT USE
prior to	before
pursuant to your request	as you asked
pursuant to our agreement	as we agreed
Re, In re	regarding
reason is because	reason is that
regarding the matter of	about
render assistance	help
replying to your letter of, referring to yours of	DO NOT USE
self-addressed envelope or SASE	addressed, stamped envelope
subsequent to	after
take this opportunity to	DO NOT USE
take pleasure in	are pleased
thank you in advance, thanking you in advance therein	DO NOT USE
this will acknowledge	DO NOT USE
this is to inform you that	DO NOT USE
this is in reply to	DO NOT USE
trust	hope
under date of	on
under separate cover	sent separately
undersigned, the undersigned	I; we
until such time as	when
upon investigation we find that	DO NOT USE
up to this writing	DO NOT USE
we wish to acknowledge	DO NOT USE
we are today in receipt of	DO NOT USE
we are not in a position to	we cannot
we are pleased to advise	DO NOT USE
we regret to advise	DO NOT USE
we wish to state	DO NOT USE
will you be kind enough to	please
with the aid of	with
with reference to	about
with regard to	about
with your kind permission	DO NOT USE
without further delay	now
you are hereby advised	DO NOT USE
you owe a total of	you owe
your check in the amount of	your check for
your letter under date of	your letter dated
yours of recent date	your recent letter
your valued wishes	DO NOT USE

G1.10 Proofreading

Proofread closely—Proofread every important sentence you have written, checking especially for errors in spelling, punctuation, and sentence construction. If you have time, put the document away for a few hours or longer, and then proofread each sentence in detail by reading each sentence backwards. By reading the sentence backwards, you will be looking at each component and not reading into the sentence what you thought you wrote.

There are eight important steps in reviewing written work:

Make the wording concise by removing all wordy expressions.
Eliminate any dangling or misplaced modifiers.
Examine all subjects and verbs for agreement.
Follow every pronoun to its antecedent.
Identify all errors in parallelism.
Correct any punctuation errors.
Check the spelling.
Read the document backwards.

This last step may take you by surprise. How does one read a document “backwards”? I mean by this that you should literally examine each component of each sentence by going backwards. Check each word for spelling. When you get to a punctuation mark, stop and ask yourself what punctuation rule tells you that you must put that mark there. If you cannot think of one, then that should leave you in doubt. When in doubt, leave the punctuation out. By reading the whole document backwards (a technique to be used only on important documents), you will avoid reading into the document what you thought you had written but in reality, had not.

It is also useful to put the document aside for a day or two (if you have the time). Then when you proofread it again, you may well find additional errors that you failed to identify the first time. Learn to become your own best editor!

G2 Parts of Speech (Kinds of Words)

G2.1 Nouns

Nouns are words that name persons, places, or things:

Abraham Lincoln was one of our best presidents.

It rains on the plains in Spain.

G2.2 Verbs

Verbs are words which express action or a state of being:

The athlete ran with great speed.

The athlete is in excellent condition.

G2.3 Pronouns

Pronouns are words that can be substituted for nouns:

He went to the movies.

We went with him to see her.

G2.4 Adjectives

Adjectives are words that describe nouns and pronouns:

We enjoyed the hot afternoon.

His life was nasty, brutish, and short.

G2.5 Adverbs

Adverbs are words that describe verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs:

She did well.

She did really well.

She was very good.

G2.6 Prepositions

Prepositions are words that position nouns and pronouns in space and time within a sentence:

Put the book between him and me.

He stood behind the people.

G2.8 Conjunctions

Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses:

She said something, and I listened to her.

They went to the game since I gave them tickets.

Neither the teacher nor the student could find the book.

G2.9 Interjections

Interjections are short words that express surprise or emotion:

Well, I certainly did not expect to see you here.

G3 Complete Sentences

Remember that a complete sentence is an independent clause, and it must have the following three parts: (1) a subject, (2) a true verb (a verb that does not end with “ing”), and (3) the expression of a complete idea. Look at the following and correct any that are not complete sentences.

G4 Four Major Punctuation Rules

The following are four very important punctuation rules that you should memorize as quickly as you can. By far, most of the sentences you write involve these rules, and once you learn them, you will avoid sixty to seventy percent of your punctuation errors.

G4.1 Dependent Clause Followed by an Independent Clause

When a sentence begins with a dependent clause (a fragment) and is followed immediately by an independent clause (a complete sentence), then separate those clauses with a comma.

Because she did not know how important a college degree would be for promotion, she did not continue in school.

G4.2 Coordinating Conjunctions

When you have two independent clauses (two complete sentences) that are joined by a coordinating conjunction (and, or, nor, for, but, so, and yet), then put a comma before the conjunction.

We recognized her to be a leader of men, so we hired her to do the job.

G4.3 Semicolon

When you have two independent clauses that are not joined by a coordinating conjunction, then separate those clauses with a semicolon (you may also use a period instead).

None of us really liked the fellow; he was always bragging about his trophies.

G4.4 Conjunctive Adverbs

When you have two independent clauses joined by a conjunctive adverb (therefore, however, thus, consequently, furthermore, moreover, nevertheless, etc.), then put a semicolon before the adverb and a comma after it.

Summer was not far off; therefore, he began looking at travel brochures.

G4.4.1 Understanding Rule Four

To apply rule four correctly, you must distinguish between conjunctive adverbs and subordinating conjunctions. These two groups of words look the same but are different.

G4.4.1.1 Conjunctive adverbs

Conjunctive adverbs connect two independent clauses, and the most frequently used are the following:

however	then	consequently
moreover	hence	besides
therefore	nevertheless	accordingly
furthermore	otherwise	also
further	thus	nonetheless

G4.4.1.2 Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions, on the other hand, connect a dependent clause to an independent clause, and the most frequently used are the following:

although	whereas	before
after	when	that
because	than	accordingly
if	since	though
where	unless	until

Rule four applies only to the first group of words. You may use a single comma before a subordinating conjunction, but it is not required. Remember-when in doubt, leave the comma out. If you don’t have to punctuate it, then why do so?

G5 Comma Splices

A comma splice is the error committed when a writer mistakenly connects two independent clauses with only a comma.

G5.1 Four Ways to Fix a Comma Splice

Add a coordinating conjunction after the comma.
Replace the comma with a period to create two sentences out of the two independent clauses.
Replace the comma with a semicolon.
Rewrite the sentence by converting one of the independent clauses into a subordinate clause. An independent clause can usually be converted into a subordinate clause by prefacing it with a subordinating conjunction.

G6 Fused Sentences

A fused or run-on sentence is the error of running together two independent clauses without any punctuation at all between them.

G6.1 Four ways to fix a fused or run-on sentence

Insert a coordinating conjunction and a comma between the independent clauses.
Insert a period between the two independent clauses to create two sentences.
Insert a semicolon in between the two empty clauses.
Rewrite the sentence by converting one of the independent clauses into a subordinate clause. An independent clause can usually be converted into a subordinate clause by prefacing it with a subordinating conjunction.

G7 Subject-Verb Rules

G7.1 When the subjects are joined by the word “and,” then the verb will be plural.

The instructor and her student were invited to the conference.

G7.2 Intervening phrases between the subject and verb do not affect the verb. (Ignore such phrases as “as well as,” “in addition to,” “together with,” and so on.)

The football coach as well as several of his team members was asked to participate in the rally.

G7.3 When the subjects are held together by the words “neither … nor,” “either … or,” “not only … but also,” “or,” or “nor,” then the verb will agree with the closer of the two subjects.Neither the president nor the members of his cabinet were sure of what to do next about the economy.

Neither the members of the cabinet nor the president was sure of what to do next about the economy.

G7.4 In sentences referring to individuals and groups, the second verb in such sentences will agree with the noun preceding the words “that” or “who.” The word “only” will make the verb singular.

He is one of those people who complain too much.

Or

He is the only one of those people who complains too much.

NOTE: This rule applies only to sentences containing two or more verbs.

G7.5 Titles that look to be plural and some nouns that look to be plural (because of the letter “s”) are usually singular in meaning and thus will require singular verbs (“measles,” “mumps,” “news,” and so on).

The Canterbury Tales is a book by Geoffrey Chaucer.

G7.6 Units or organizations are collective nouns and will therefore require singular verbs.

Mitchell, Shattuck, and Warren is a legal firm in Denver.

G7.7 Indefinite pronouns such as “each,” “every,” “either,” “neither,” “one,” “someone,” “somebody,” “anyone,” “anybody,” etc., are singular in meaning and will thus require singular verbs.

Each of the basketball players is to report to the coach.

G7.8 In sentences beginning with the words “There” or “Here,” go on into the sentence, identify the subject, and then go back and adjust the verb. Remember that the words “There” and “Here” will never serve as subjects of a sentence. Also, in sentences beginning with the word “It,” followed by a verb, the verb will always be singular.

There are several important reasons for signing the contract.

G7.9 If a sentence begins with the words “The number … , ” then the verb following will be singular. However, if a sentence begins with the words “A number . ” (or a variation of that), then the verb will be plural.

The number of employees needing supervision is diminishing.

Or

A number of employees are asking for bonuses.

G7.10 Whenever you are expressing a wish or a contrary-to-fact statement, then switch to the plural verb “were” (subjunctive mood: “I wish I were in the Bahamas”; “If I were you, I would . . .”).

If the allegation were true, then he would be in trouble.

NOTE: Avoid “double verbing,” a wordy habit of using two or more verbs when only one is needed (“He is expecting to go” instead of “He expects to go,” or “She begins to think” instead of “she thinks”).

G8 Pronoun Agreement

Pronoun agreement involves the same rules as subject-verb agreement. If there is a singular antecedent, then the pronoun referring to it must also be singular. If the antecedent is plural, then the pronoun must be plural. Be especially careful in your use of pronouns. The language is changing, and what you hear may not necessarily be correct.

G8.1 Pronoun Reference

Remember that whenever you use a pronoun in your sentences, make certain that its meaning is clear. If there are two or more possible meanings (antecedents), then your reader will be confused. The following are sentences with vague pronouns:

For the past ten years, she has lived in Germany; consequently, she speaks it fluently.
During the Civil War, you had to choose which side you were on.
The student took out his pencil and paper, and when he was finished, he put it back.
During the wedding reception, the bride and groom received money and a new car, and they appreciated it.
I went to the mall to see about a job, but they said they were not doing any hiring.

G9 Pronoun Case

Pronouns have three cases.

G9.1 Pronoun Cases

G9.1.1 Subjective Case Pronoun

When using the pronoun as the subject of the sentence, you must use the subjective case. Subjective acts.

I, he, she, we, they, who, whoever

G9.1.2 Objective Case Pronoun

When using the pronoun as the object of the sentence (receiving the action), you must use the objective case. Acted upon.

me, him, her, us, them, whom, whomever

G9.1.2 Possessive Case Pronoun

When using the pronoun to indicate ownership, you must use the possessive case. Possessing.

My (mine), your (yours), his, her (hers), its, our (ours), their (theirs), whose

G9.2 How to Identify Pronoun Case

G9.2.1 Grammatical ways to identify case:

G9.2.1.1 Is the verb acting on the pronoun? OBJECTIVE CASE.

G9.2.1.2 Is there a preposition acting directly on the pronoun? OBJECTIVE CASE.

G9.2.1.3 Is there an infinitive (to verb) acting on the pronoun? OBJECTIVE CASE.

To determine case, find out how the word is used in its own clause, whether the pronoun is a subject, a possessive, or an object.

G9.2.2 Four simple techniques to help you find the correct pronoun:

G9.2.2.1 The “Cancellation Technique”

With this technique, you cancel temporarily the words that may confuse you:

It may have been (she, her) who went to the party.

~~It may have been~~ (she, her) ~~who~~ went to the party.

G9.2.2.2 The “Answering the Question Technique”

This technique works well on sentences asking questions:

(Who, Whom) do you know at my place of work?

To get the correct pronoun, answer mentally the question by using another pronoun:

I know him or her…

G9.2.2.3 The “Bracketing Technique”

This technique works well on long sentences. Put brackets before and after the relative clause:

Identify (who, whom) [you believe was responsible for the crime.}

Now read those words within the brackets and see where another pronoun (other than “who” or “whom”) would fit:

You believe he was responsible for the crime.

“He” is in the subjective case and so is “who,” so the answer is

who:

Identify who you believe was responsible for the crime.

G9.2.2.4 The “Asking a Question Technique”

Using this technique, you ask yourself a question about the sentence:

There were only two candidates—Jim Wilson and (he, him)—for the award.

Who was a candidate for the award? He was.

G10 Adjectives and Adverbs

G10.1 Be sure to use adverbs when they are appropriate. Most adverbs-though not all-end with the letters “ly.”

G10.2 When you are comparing two nouns, then use an adjective that ends with the letters “er.” When you are comparing three or more nouns, then use an adjective that ends with the letters “est.”

This dictionary is better than the other, but that dictionary is the best of the three.

G10.3 There are a handful of words in English that are called “linking verbs.” They link a description to the subject. Examples of linking verbs are “taste,” “smell,” “sound,” “seem,” “look,” “appear,” “be,” “become,” and “feel.” Use an adjective after a linking verb, not an adverb.

I feel bad about missing the party.

G10.4 There is another handful of words in English that are called “absolute terms.” They describe a situation absolutely and thus cannot be easily compared. Examples of absolute terms are “perfect,” “dead,” “square,” “round,” “triangular,” “pregnant,” and “unique.” If you must compare them, use the word “more” or the phrase “more nearly.”

We want to form a more perfect union.

G11 Correct Punctuation

Punctuation marks are signals to the reader when to stop, pause, or quickly move on. If you do not master these signals, then you run the risk of not communicating with your reader. Learn the following rules of punctuation:

G11.1 The period indicates the end of a complete sentence. Use it often in your writing and remember that your sentences should average fifteen to twenty words. Then end the sentences with periods.

G11.2 The comma is the most frequently used punctuation mark in the English language. However, in “modem” punctuation (since the tum of the century), the trend has been not to use the comma often. Here is an excellent maxim to follow regarding commas: “If in doubt, leave it out.” The comma rules are found on pages 62-64.

G11.3 The semicolon is used between two independent clauses (two complete sentences) that are not joined by a coordinating conjunction: “and,” “or,” “nor,” “for,” “but,” “so,” and “yet.” If you do not wish to use a semicolon for stylistic reasons, then you may separate the two independent clauses with a period. Periods and semicolons are almost interchangeable. The semicolon is practiced on page 86.

The weather in Colorado is unpredictable; the sun may shine tomorrow.

G11.4 The colon is used to lead into a quotation, a list, or another clause that explains the first. However, do remember this proviso: in front of a colon, there must be an independent clause. If there is no independent clause in front of the colon, then make the clause independent or eliminate the colon altogether. (This proviso does not apply to titles.)

His list included the following: books, cameras, and lunches.

G11.5 The dash should be used sparingly in your writing, and it is used primarily to set off information with emphasis. In typescript, the dash is created by two hyphens together with no spacing between the words. When you are using a word processor, use the “em” dash (the “en” dash is a hyphen).

Two members-John and I-attended the fall conference.

G11.6 The hyphen (the “en” dash) should probably be used a little more often in your writing than you are currently using it. It is used chiefly when you have taken two or more words and compressed them into the equivalent of an adjective that goes before a noun. The hyphen is discussed fully on page 93.

This device is a state-of the-art product.

G11.7 Parentheses should be used just as sparingly as dashes. They are needed when you have enclosed loosely related information within your sentence (the information is almost an afterthought) and when you are providing a brief clarification (“brief” means “quick”).

G11.8 Quotation marks have two main functions: (1) to enclose the exact words of a speaker or writer and (2) to enclose titles of short works such as poems, short stories, or articles. (Titles of long works such as books, newspapers, or magazines must be underlined or printed in italics.)

“Would you like to go to the concert?” Paul asked.

“The Grand Inquisitor” is a chapter in Dostoyevsky ‘s The Brothers Karamazov.

NOTE: In American English (as contrasted to British English), all periods and commas are placed inside closing quotation marks without exception. All semicolons and colons are placed outside closing quotation marks. All question marks and exclamation points are placed either inside or outside, depending on the quotation itself. If the quotation itself is a question, for example, then the question mark goes inside; if the quotation is not a question, but someone is asking a question in the sentence, then the question mark goes outside. Got any questions?

He asked, “Is beauty in the eye of the beholder?” Did he say, “Beauty is in the eye of the beholder”?

G12 All Comma Rules

12.1 Comma Rules

The following are all the comma rules. Memorize them as quickly as possible, especially the first five. They are the most important ones. Remember, if after studying the rules you are still in doubt about whether or not a sentence needs a comma, then leave the comma out.

G12.1.1 Put a comma after a dependent clause (a fragment) that is followed immediately by an independent clause (a complete sentence):

Because the weather was bad, we decided to eat indoors.

G12.1.2 Put a comma between two independent clauses (two complete sentences) that are joined by a coordinating conjunction (“and,” “or,” “nor, for,“ “but,” “so,” and “yet”):

George likes working in Colorado, and he hopes to live there.

G12.1.3 Put commas between words, phrases, or clauses that are in a series (a series consists of three or more):

He ran to the door, opened it quickly, and yelled to the dog.

G12.1.4 Put commas before and after modifiers (one word or a group of words) that are not essential to the meaning of the sentence (nonessential or nonrestrictive modifiers):

My twin brother, Walter, has finally graduated from college.

Do not put commas before and after modifiers that are essential to the meaning of the sentence (essential or restrictive modifiers):

The American author Mark Twain was really named Samuel Clemens.

G12.1.5 Put commas around words that are out of the normal word order (subject-verb object), around sentence modifiers (for example, unfortunately, on the other hand, etc.), and around conjunctive adverbs (therefore, however, consequently, etc.):

We can do nothing, I believe, to improve the situation.

We cannot, unfortunately, go with you on a hike in the mountains. We would like, however, to reimburse you for your expenses.

G12.1.6 Put commas between adjectives that independently describe nouns and pronouns (coordinate adjectives):

My family decided to adopt the soft, cuddly, fuzzy puppy.

Do not put commas between adjectives that jointly describe nouns and pronouns (cumulative adjectives):

The man wore bright yellow polyester trousers to work.

NOTE: One way to distinguish between such adjectives is to see if you can put the word “and” between the adjectives. If putting the word in sounds odd, then that should leave you in doubt. If in doubt, leave the comma out.

G12.1.7 Put commas in dates, addresses, and titles:

December 15, 1992, is the date set for the conference.

I used to live at 229 Aragon Street, San Clemente, California, when I was a child.

Dr. Jon Winterton, Associate Professor of Communications, will join us next week.

NOTE: When only the month and the year are listed, then do not use commas.

The month of December 1991 was a cold one in this state.

G12.1.8 Put commas around direct contrasts and short questions and after interjections and adverbs such as yes and no:

We should use the word inquisitive, not argumentative, to describe him.

You were at the important meeting, weren’t you? Well, I guess we will attend that conference after all. No, he does not intend to fly to New York.

G12.1.9 Put commas around names or words used in direct address (when someone is speaking directly to someone else):

We will have to do something, Anne, about that new car.

G12.1.10 Put commas around phrases like he said, she replied, they yelled, when they are attached to quotations:

The protesters shouted, “No more pollution!”

“How can we finish this job,” the supervisor asked, “until you put the engine back in?”

NOTE: If a phrase is between two independent clauses within quotation marks, do not use a second comma (that would be a comma splice). Use instead a semicolon or period.

“We cannot finish this job,” the supervisor said; “you did not put the engine back in.”

G12.1.11 Put commas around absolute phrases (a phrase that modifies the whole sentence and can be put anywhere in the sentence):

Taking advantage of his offer to help me, I finished the letter. I finished the letter, taking advantage of his offer to help me.

G12.1.12 Put a comma in a sentence when necessary for clarity:

Those who can, do; those who can’t, teach.

G12.2 Unnecessary Commas

G12.2.1 Never put a comma between the subject and verb:

Learning to read closely and to take notes carefully, was difficult for him.

G12.2.2 Do not set off prepositional phrases unnecessarily:

She decided to confer, at a later date, with her employer.

G12.2.3 Never put a comma in front of a coordinating conjunction that is between an independent clause and a dependent clause:

He studied hard for the calculus test and wanted badly to earn a high grade.

Formula: Independent clause coordinating conjunction dependent clause = no comma.

G12.3 Comma Rule Four

Comma rule four is the trickiest comma rule and deserves special attention. As you recall, the rule tells you to set off modifiers that are nonessential. Those are words that simply re-name or comment on the noun they follow (they always follow a noun). An essential modifier is necessary to the meaning of the sentence, and if you were to remove it, the sentence would be seriously damaged. Consequently, you do nothing to essential modifiers.

G13 Four Apostrophe Rules

The possessive apostrophe is easy to master for some, difficult to master for others. It was invented in the eighteenth century to take the place of an “of’ phrase: “The house of the family,” “The books of the student,” “A wait of five hours.” These instead can be written with the possessive apostrophe: “The family’s house,” “The student’s books,” and “A five hours’ wait.” The following are four important rules to help you understand when to use the possessive apostrophe:

G13.1 When the noun to be made possessive does not end with an “s,” then add an apostrophe and an “s.”

G13.2 When the noun to be made possessive end with an “s,” then simply add an apostrophe after the “s.”

G13.3 When two or more nouns possess the same thing, then make only the last noun possessive. This is called “joint possession.”

G13.4 When each noun possesses something individually (each one has its own), then make each noun possessive.

G13.5 NOTE ON SPELLING: This note has nothing to do with possession, but so many people have difficulty with the rule that I thought I would include it here. If a surname (a last name) ends with the letters “s ” “x ” “z ” “sh ” or “ch ” then to write the plural of that name, you must add the letters “e’s”: t’he Bu’shes, the’ Martinezes, the Welches, the Bendixes, the Joneses. Those who have last names that do not end with these letters simply add an “s” to form the plural. Have you noticed that in none of these there is a possessive apostrophe?

G14 Hyphenation

The following are five important rules for using the hyphen, and the first rule is the most important:

G14.1 Whenever you are taking two or more words and compressing them into one word (the equivalent of an adjective) that goes before: a noun, then you must hyphenate those words. If the words go after the noun, then you will not usually hyphenate them. A noun must follow the words for this rule to apply.

This is a state-of-the-art product. This product is state of the art.

Keep in mind, though, that some words are always hyphenated:

It was a gang-related shooting or The shooting was gang-related.

G14.2 Whenever you are writing out numbers that involve two words (such as twenty one through twenty-nine, thirty-one through thirty-nine, and numbers up through ninety-nine), then you must hyphenate those words.

G14.3 All fractions must be hyphenated when written out: Two-thirds, three-fifths, one-fourth.

G14.4 Page numbers may be hyphenated: Read pages 135-150 for our next meeting.

G14.5 Words containing prefixes are often hyphenated: Pre-test, post-test, self-abuse, ex-husband, anti-intellectual.

G15 Capitalization

G15.1 All proper nouns (nouns that name persons, places, and special things) must be capitalized: Ronald Reagan, Colorado, and the Eiffel Tower. Common nouns are not capitalized: dog, cat, building.

G15.1.1 Exceptions:

G15.1.1.1 Although the days of the week and months of the year are capitalized, the seasons of the year are not: summer, fall, winter, spring.

G15.1.1.2 The numbers of the centuries are not capitalized: nineteenth century, twentieth

G15.1.1.3 General areas of study are not capitalized: mathematics, anthropology, biology; however, the names of the languages are: French, German, English.

G15.1.1.4 Directions of the compass are not capitalized: north, east, west, south; however, geographical locations are: The American Civil War was fought between the North and the South.

G15.1.1.5 The names of diseases are not capitalized: typhus, diphtheria, tuberculosis; however, diseases that are named for a diagnostician are: Parkinson’s disease, Hodgkin’s disease (the second word may also be capitalized if you wish).

G15.1.1.6 The main words of long titles are capitalized, but the prepositions, articles, and conjunctions are not (unless, of course, they begin the title).

G15.1.1.7 NOTE: If you write the full name of an organization,then capitalize it: City of Westchester, Allen Barnes Plumbing Company, Department of Transportation. However, if you use only a part of the name, then do not capitalize: city, company, department.T he same applies to titles: supervisor, professor, mayor.

G15.1.1.8 NOTE ON NUMBERS: In business writing of memos, letters, and reports, the standard policy is to write out numbers one through ten and render all numbers above ten as figures: “There were seven people who attended the meeting”; “There were 12 people who attended the meeting.” However, be consistent in how you deal with numbers. Do not mix writing them out and using figures in the same document if there are many of them. In formal writing of essays, always spell out numbers that can be written easily in one or two words.

G16 Spelling

Four Basic Spelling Rules

G16.1 If a word ends with a “y” preceded by a consonant (carry, heavy), then change the “y” to an “i” before every suffix except the letters “ing.”

carry ed = carried	try ing = trying
heavy er = heavier	dry ing = drying
fancy ful = fanciful	cry ing = crying

G16.2 Write”i” before”e” except after”c” or when sounded as “a” as in “neighbor” or “weigh.”

Examples of”i” before”e”: believe,piece, friend

Examples of “e”before”i”: receive,receipt, perceive

Exceptions: weird, height, leisure, ancient , science

G16.3 If a word ends with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel (beg, slip) and you add a suffix beginning with a vowel (“ed,” “ing,” “en,” “age”), then double the consonant if”

(1) the word has only one syllable

beg ed = begged

rub ed = rubbed

(2) the word is accented on the last syllable:

refer ed = referred

occur ed = occurred

Do not double the final consonant if the accent is not on the last syllable (totaled, credited, worshiped).

G16.4 If a word ends with a silent “e” (sale, argue) and you add a suffix,

(1) drop the “e” if the suffix begins with a vowel:

sale able = salable

argue able = arguable

(2) keep the “e” if the suffix begins with a consonant:

nine ty = ninety

care less = careless

G17 Troublesome Words

The following pages contain troublesome words, words that are often misused. Read the word entries carefully, and when you see any that you do not know or that you have been misusing, then write them down on a separate list.

a/an

Use a before words beginning with a consonant or consonant sound.

Our neighbors were walking a dog at the park yesterday.

Use an before words beginning with a vowel or vowel sound

Today our neighbors were walking an elephant at the park.

accept/except

accept: to receive

The insurance company was not certain whether or not to accept the policy premium.

except: to exclude.

The insurance company was certain about everything except to how to handle the policy premium.

advise/advice

advise: to counsel or suggest

Your tax accountant will advise you on what to do about your deductions.

advice: what you get when counseled

Your tax accountant will offer you advice on what to do about your deductions.

affect/effect

Affect: to change, alter, or influence.

The massive layoffs are bound to affect employee morale.

Effect: a result or consequence

The effect of the massive layoffs on employee morale is not yet known. i

alot/a lot

Alot: not a word

A lot: the two correct ones

Trigonometry is a course that certainly requires a lot of study.

alright/all right

alright: not a standard word

all right: the two correct ones

We found him all right, but he could not speak with us then.

already/all ready

already: by this time

I think the boss has already made up his mind.

all ready: completely ready

I think the boss is all ready to make up his mind.

allude/elude

allude: to refer to something else

The local sheriff mysteriously alluded to a previous meeting.

elude: to avoid

The local sheriff had mysteriously eluded the previous meeting.

allusion/illusion

allusion: a reference to something else

When the local sheriff spoke, he made an allusion to a previous meeting.

illusion: an erroneous conception

The local sheriff told us that the existence of any previous meeting was just an illusion perpetrated by his political rivals.

amount/number

amount: use for non-countable nouns

The amount of anxiety he has about his writing has decreased quite a lot.

number: use for countable nouns

The number of errors in his writing has decreased quite a lot.

apprised/appraised

apprised: to inform

The seller apprised the buyer that he had no idea what the house was worth.

appraised: to estimate

The buyer replied by informing the seller that the worth of the house had recently been appraised at over four-hundred thousand dollars.

assure/ensure/insure

assure: to convince someone

I certainly do want to assure you that all employees will be covered in this plan.

ensure: to make sure

I have asked the committee to ensure that everyone is covered in the plan.

insure: to protect

All employees will be insured against liability and collision.

are/our

are: the plural verb

They are going to be here soon.

our: the possessive pronoun

Our dinner guests are going to be here soon.

awhile/a while

awhile: use with a verb

I am now going to study awhile.

a while: use if “for” precedes it

I am now going to study for a while.

Between/Among

between: used for only two

The secret I am going to tell you is just between the two of us.

among: used for three or more

The secret I am going to tell all of you now is to be kept among us.

capital/capitol

capital: the city; money

Denver is the capital of Colorado.

capitol: where the legislature meets

There have been no riots at any state capitol this year.

cite/sight/cite

cite: to quote, mention, summon

The inspector went unannounced to the construction site.

sight: to see

There were numerous safety violations in plain sight.

site: a location

She cited the construction company for several safety violations.

choose/chose

choose: to select

During the Civil War, people had to choose which side they were on.

chose: past tense

Many people chose to be on the Union side.

clothes/cloths

clothes: what you wear

The physics student was so engrossed in her studies that she did not even care what kind of clothesshe wore.

cloths: what the clothes are made of

The physics student was so engrossed in her studies that she did not even care what kind of cloth her shirt was made from.

complement/compliment

complement: to enhance or make better

A good barbecue sauce will indeed complement the ribs.

compliment: the flattering remark

She really appreciated his compliments because they were sincere.

conscious/conscience

conscious: awake

I see that you have become more conscious of the plight of the homeless.

conscience: what makes you feel guilty

I see the plight of the homeless has bothered your conscience.

continual/continuous

continual: goes on with short breaks

When I turn that faucet off, the water drips continually.

continuous: goes on without letup

When I turn it on, the water flows continuously.

council/counsel

council: the group

I will be meeting with the council later this morning.

counsel: to give advice; an attorney counselor: someone who gives advice

I hope that you can counsel me before I meet with them.

could of/would of

could of: could have

I could have gone to the hardware store earlier, but I didn’t.

would of: would have

I would have gone to the hardware store earlier, but my car would not start.

credible/creditable

credible: believable (incredible = unbelievable)

The employee’s story sounded credible, so I decided not to fire her for stealing.

creditable: worthy of credit, praise

I thought the employee’s work had been creditable, so I recommended her for a pay raise

criterion/criteria

criterion: one standard of judgment

The history teacher said he had one criterion for grading “A” papers.

criteria: two or more standards of judgment

The science teacher said she had several criteria for grading “A” papers.

data/datum

data: plural

When all the data is in we will be able to make a determination.

datum: singular

We are waiting on a single piece of datum to make a determination.

deduce/deduct

deduce: to figure out

From all the evidence, the police deduced that he was a prime suspect.

deduct: to subtract

He was accused of deducting unauthorized funds from the employee’s paycheck.

device/devise

device: an object

A small device that attaches to your carburetor will increase gas mileage.

devise: to plan

We want to devise some method of increasing gas mileage.

disburse/disperse

disburse: to pay out

The stimulus funds were disbursed to every eligible person in the country.

disperse: to scatter

When tear gas was thrown into their midst, the crowd dispersed.

discreet/discrete

discreet: to be quiet or careful

What do you do in your writing when you have two discrete numbers next to each other?

discrete: distinct or separate

What do you do in your writing when you want to be more discreet?

disinterested/uninterested

disinterested: unbiased or impartial

The judge and jury sat looking disinterestedly at the accused

uninterested: bored or indifferent

The chemistry student seemed quite uninterested in the subject.

disorganized/organized

disorganized: cast into disorder

After the boss put the company into bankruptcy, the group quickly became disorganized.

unorganized: not yet organized

Before we started this company together, we were an unorganized group of independent contractors.

drag/drug

drag: to pull something

I drag the boxes into the house.

drug: used only for narcotics

Where did you purchase that drug?

each other/one another

each other: two only

My brother and sister care about each other.

one another: three or more

We all care for one another.

eminent/imminent/emanate

eminent: famous or well known

The eminent scholar provided some fascinating insights into this historical event

imminent: rapidly forthcoming

With the disintegration of the Soviet Union, we can expect some imminent political changes.

emanate: to come from or emit

A lot of information is now emanating from the former Soviet Union that could give us some insight.

everyday/every day

everyday: usual, ordinary, daily

Deborah went on one of her everyday trips to the bank for her employer.

every day: every single day

Deborah goes on a trip to the bank for her employer every day.

explicit/implicit

explicit: very clear

His explicit instructions were to leave the money in a brown suitcase at the corner of Oak Street and Pine Avenue.

implicit: suggested

Implicit in his words was that some kind of ransom would eventually be demanded.

farther/further

farther: referring to distances

Which city is farther west, Los Angeles or Reno?

further: referring to ideas

Let us discuss this philosophical question further when we have more time.

few/less

few (fewer,fewest): use for countable nouns

The student claimed she had fewer failing grades this semester.

less (lesser,least): use for non-countable nouns

This month’s spillage was less than last month’s.

flaunt/flout

flaunt: to show off

They wanted to flaunt their disregard for the pool rules.

flout: to disregard

They wanted to show off their ability to flout the pool rules.

formally/formerly

formally: to be formal

She would not date him until they were formally introduced.

formerly: previously

Even though they had met formerly, she did not feel that they were properly introduced at that time.

healthy/healthful

healthy: having good health

Her parents always told her to eat well, exercise often, and stay healthy.

healthful: conducive to good health

Her parents always told her her to eat healthful foods and exercise often.

imply/infer

imply: to suggest

I want to imply that you are not eating enough vegetables.

infer: to draw a conclusion

I infer from your lack of energy that you are not eating enough carbohydrates.

incidence/incidents

incidence: degree or range of occurrence

Due to the high incidence of calling in sick, the employee was relieved of his duties.

incidents: the occurrences or events

How many more of these incidents are we willing to tolerate?

incite/insight

incite: to get excited

The protester was able to speak well enough to incite the crowd.

insight: to see into; to understand

In an interview, the she provided journalists with several insights into her behavior.

instants/instance

instants: moments

One instant she was there, then in another, she was gone.

instance: example

In the second instance, she might have just left for a moment.

irregardless/regardless

irregardless: not a word

regardless: without regard

Regardless of what you might think, we are proceeding with the task.

its/it’s

its: possessive pronoun

I need help writing this report because of its very complicated nature

it’s: contraction of “it is” or “it has”

I need help writing this report because it’s very complicated.

knew/new

knew: past tense of “know”

Most of the students knew that Jack was cheating on his examination.

new: just come into being

It was not new news to any of the students that Jack was cheating on his examinations.

last/latest

last: final one

The former professor’s last article appeared in a recent issue of Newsweek.

latest: most recent

The article was actually in the latest issue of Newsweek.

lay/lie

lay: to put

Present Tense: I lay the cards on the table.
Past Tense: I laid the cards on the table.
Past Participle: I had laid the cards on the table.
Present Participle: I was laying the cards on the table.

lie: to recline

Present Tense: Now that I have put the cards on the table, I lie down.
Past Tense: After I put the cards on the table, I lay down.
Past Participle: I had lain there for a while before getting up to put the cards on the table.
Present Participle: I am lying here for a while before I get up to put the cards on the table.

lie: to tell a falsehood

Present Tense: I lie about putting the cards on the table.
Past Tense: I lied about putting the cards on the table.
Past Participle: I had lied about putting the cards on the table.
Present Participle: I am lying about putting the cards on the table.

lead/led

lead: to direct (Pronounced like read)

She has come here to lead our company into the future.

lead: the metal (pronounced like dead)

Old pipes can contain lead.

led: past tense of “lead” (pronounced like dead)

She led our company for many years before she left.

like/as

like: do not use if a verb follows (Avoid Like I said…)

as: use this word instead (As I said. . . “.)

As I indicated previously, one should not yell “fire” in a crowded theater.

loose/lose

loose: free

Once you catch the fish, you can either cook it or set it loose.

lose: to misplace

Do not allow yourself to lose your objectivity.

maybe/may be

maybe: perhaps

Maybe Sasquatch does exist.

may be: two words meaning “possible”

It may be that Sasquatch exists.

media/medium

media: plural

The student used several different types of media in her presentation.

medium: singular

The most used medium for an essay is paper.

most/almost

most: generally used before words beginning with a consonant

The professor believed that most students would earn high grades.

almost: generally used before words beginning with a vowel

The professor believed that almost all of the students would earn high grades.

orient/orientate

orient: to direct or guide

orientate: acceptable, but use “orient”

On our first day of work, we were oriented about our job responsibilities.

passed/past

passed: past tense of “pass”

The Ferrari passed the Jaguar after the second curve.

past: what has occurred

The race is in the past.

personal/personnel

personal: private or individual

The memo suggested that employees have been taking too much personal time.

personnel: the employees

The memo told the selected employees to report to the Personnel Office by next Monday.

perspective/prospective

perspective: the angle of vision

Several clients have differing perspectives on our new product.

prospective: expected or anticipated

Many prospective clients have not yet been informed about our new product.

plain/plane

plain: simple

The decorations in your house are rather plain.

plane: level surface

Did you study plane geometry before entering college?

populace/populous

populace: the people

In a true democracy, all decisions are made by a vote of the populace.

populous: heavily populated

The least populous areas tend to be more conservative in their political viewpoints.

preventive/preventative

preventive: to keep from happening

It is very important to take preventive measures before operating that machine.

preventative: acceptable, but use “preventive”

principal/principle

principal: the school official; money; most important

The principal advantage of learning to write clearly is clear communication.

principle: a basic rule or truth

One principle of clear writing is brevity.

proposal/proposition

proposal: an offer

Please review our most recent proposal.

proposition: a statement

If you accept proposition A as true, then you must agree with the conclusion also.

quiet/quite/quit

quiet: calm

Librarians generally prefer to maintain a quiet space for everyone.

quite: very

Often, they are quite insistent about maintaining such a space.

quit: to stop

If you are talking too loudly, they will ask you to quit.

quote/quotation

quote: use as a verb only (You may quote me.)

Can I quote you on that?

quotation: what you get when you quote someone

Are you going to include my quotation verbatim, or are you going to paraphrase?

rein/reign

rein: a horse’s bridle

To be an effective leader, it is sometimes necessary to rein in your subordinates.

reign: to rule

The Queen of England still reigns over the country today.

respectfully/respectively

respectfully: full of respect

“After you, ” the porter said respectfully.

respectively: relating individually

I handed the bacon and the eggs to Lisa and Miles, respectively.

sale/sell

sale: to sell something

This weekend we are going to have a garage sale.

sell: the act of selling

At that time I am going to sell everything I own.

sneak/snuck

sneak: to move with stealth

Every day I sneak up on you and scare you in the library.

snuck: not a word yet

sometime/some time

sometime: an undetermined time

You may get a chance to sneak up on me and scare me in the library sometime.

some time: a period of time

Since the library is currently closed for renovation, it will probably be some time before you are able to scare me there.

stationary/stationery

stationary: remains in place

The cog turns, but the machine remains stationary.

stationery: writing paper

I was going to write a letter to you instead of sending this email, but I didn’t have any stationery.

tenant/tenet

tenant: someone who rents

I have a tenant who never pays his rent on time.

tenet: a principle or conviction

One of his basic tenets is to always tell the truth.

than/then

than: used in comparing

My evaluation reports are really not much better than yours, but next year I plan on trying harder.

then: a measurement of time: “at that time”

My evaluation reports will be better then.

their/there/they’re

their: a possessive pronoun

All of the students have completed their final exam

there: in that place

They completed it over there.

they’re: contraction of “they are”

They’re all quite happy to be finished.

to/too

to: preposition

I am going to work.

too: adverb: “also” or “very”

I will be working too.

weather/whether

weather: atmospheric conditions

I don’t know what the weather is going to be today.

whether: if

I don’t know whether it will rain or snow.

whose/who’s

whose: possessive pronoun

Those are the employees whose cars are parked in the wrong places.

who’s: contraction of “who is”

Who’s parked in your spot?

your/you’re

your: possessive pronoun

Who is parked in your spot?

you ‘re: contraction of “you are”

You’re a really nice person.

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