Image Credits

Aaron Smith

Image Credits

Introduction: What is Art? – An Introduction to Art History

Lysippos, Apoxyomenos (Scraper), Roman copy after a bronze statue from c. 330 B.C.E., 6′ 9″ high, Vatican Museums (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory; CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Kiki Smith, male figure from Untitled, 1990, 198.1 × 181.6 × 54 cm, beeswax and microcrystalline wax figures on metal stands, Whitney Museum of American Art (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory; CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Coatlicue, c. 1500, Mexica (Aztec), found on the SE edge of the Plaza Mayor/Zocalo in Mexico City, basalt, 257 cm high, National Museum of Anthropology, Mexico City (Photo courtesy: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Queen Mother Pendant Mask (Iyoba), 16th century, Edo peoples, Court of Benin, Nigeria, ivory, iron, copper, 23.8 x 12.7 x 8.3 cm, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (Photo courtesy: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Kehinde Wiley, Rumors of War, 2019, bronze, 8.2 m tall x 4.9 m long, Richmond Museum of Fine Arts, Virginia (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory; CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Chapter 1: Prehistory – Art before the Written Record

Unknown Artist, Venus of Hohle Fels, 35,000 – 40,000 BP, mammoth ivory, 6 cm, Urgeschichtliches Museum, Blaubeuren, Germany (Photo courtesy: Ramessos, CC BY-SA 3.0)

Replica of the painting from the Chauvet-Pont-d’Arc Cave in southern France, Anthropos Museum, Brno, Czech Republic (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Unknown artist(s), Hall of Bulls, Lascaux II (replica of the original cave, which is closed to the public), c. 16,000-14,000 B.C.E. (original cave), charcoal and ochre, 350.52 cm long (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Disemboweled bison and bird-headed human figure, Cave at Lascaux, c. 16,000-14,000 B.C.E. (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Unknown artist, Venus of Willendorf, c. 24,000-22,000 B.C.E., limestone 11.1 cm high, Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna (Photo courtesy: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Detail, Unknown artist, Venus of Willendorf, c. 24,000-22,000 B.C.E., limestone 11.1 cm high, Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Stonehenge, c. 2550-1600 B.C.E., Salisbury Plain, Wiltshire, England (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Interior of the sarsen circle and bluestones in the foreground, Stonehenge, c. 2550-1600 B.C.E., Salisbury Plain, Wiltshire, England (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Stonehenge, c. 2550-1600 B.C.E., Salisbury Plain, Wiltshire, England (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Çatalhöyük after the first excavations by James Mellaart and his team (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC: BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Relief map of Turkey noting the location of Çatalhöyük (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC: BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Seated Woman of Çatalhöyük (head is a restoration), The Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, Ankara, Turkey (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC: BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Neolithic Wall Painting in Building 80, Çatalhöyük (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC: BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Bull bucrania, corner installation in Building 77, Çatalhöyük (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC: BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Chapter 2: Mesopotamia – the Cradle of Civilization

Map of the Ancient Near East (Photo courtesy: Cush, CC 0)

The Euphrates River in 2005 (Photo courtesy: Sergeant James McCauley, CC 0)

Unknown Artist, Legal case from Niqmepuh, King of Iamhad (Aleppo), 1720 B.C.E., clay, 10 x 5.08 cm, British Museum, London (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Reconstruction of the ziggurat of Inanna at Uruk (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Ziggurat at Ali Air Base Iraq, 2005, Ziggurat of Ur, partly restored, c. 2100 B.C.E. mudbrick and baked brick, Tell el-Mukayyar, Iraq (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Unknown artist, Cylinder seal of Pu-abi, c. 2600 B.C.E., lapis lazuli, 4.9 x 2.6 cm, British Museum, London(Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Peace (detail), The Standard of Ur, 2600-2400 B.C.E., shell, red limestone, lapis lazuli, and bitumen (original wood no longer exists), 21.59 x 49.53 x 12 cm, British Museum, London (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

War (detail), The Standard of Ur, 2600-2400 B.C.E., shell, red limestone, lapis lazuli, and bitumen (original wood no longer exists), 21.59 x 49.53 x 12 cm, British Museum, London (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Ashurbanipal slitting the throat of a lion from his chariot (detail), Ashurbanipal Hunting Lions, gypsum hall relief from the North Palace, Ninevah, c. 645-635 B.C.E., British Museum, London (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Panel of a lion from the Ishtar Gate Processional Way, Pergamon Museum, Berlin (Photo courtesy: Aaron Smith, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Growth of the Achaemenid Empire under different kings (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Chapter 3: Egypt – Land of the Pharaohs

Detail, Unknown artist, Palette of Narmer, c. 3000-2920 B.C.E., siltstone, 64 x 42 cm, Egyptian Museum, Cairo (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Ramses III smiting a Foreign Enemy, Unknown artist, First Pylon of the Mortuary Temple of Ramesses III, c. 1187-56 B.C.E., mudbrick, Medinet Habu, Egypt (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Unknown artist, Funerary sculptures of Prince Rahotep and his wife Nofret, c. 2575-2551 B.C.E., painted limestone, 120 cm high, Egyptian Museum, Cairo (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Drawing of the Abydos King List (Photo courtesy: PLstrom, CC BY-SA 3.0)

Unknown artist, Palette of Narmer, c. 3000-2920 B.C.E., siltstone, 64 x 42 cm, Egyptian Museum, Cairo (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Diagram of the Palette of Narmer (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Pharaoh Ptolemy VIII between the goddesses Wadjet (symbolizing lower Egypt) and Nekhbet (symbolizing upper Egypt). Bas-relief on wall of Temple of Edfu, Egypt (Photo Courtesy: Olaf Tausch; CC BY 3.0)

Unknown artist, Pyramids of Giza,c 2600 B.C.E., limestone, mortar, granite, Giza, Egypt (Photo courtesy: KennyOMG, CC BY-SA 4.0)

Schematic of an Egyptian mastaba from the Old Kingdom (Photo courtesy: Master Uegly, CC BY-SA 3.0

Plan of the Giza Pyramid Complex (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Video reconstruction of the Great Pyramids of Giza Complex (Photo courtesy: Arienne King, CC BY-SA 4.0)

Unknown artist, Great Sphinx of Giza, c. 2558-2532 B.C.E., limestone, 73 x 19 x 20 m, Giza, Egypt (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Unknown artist, Pyramid of Menkaure, c. 2510 B.C.E., limestone, red granite, 102.2 x 104.6 x 65 m, Giza, Egypt (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Unknown artist, King Menkaure (Mycerinus) and queen, 2490-2472 B.C.E., Greywacke, 142.2 x 57.1 x 55.2 cm, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Unknown artist, Avenue of sphinxes, the first pylon, and the central east-west aisle of Temple of Amun-Re, Karnak, Luxor, Egypt (Photo courtesy: Mark Fox, CC BY-NC 2.0)

Google Earth view of Karnak (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Model of the Precinct of Amun-Re, Karnak (Photo courtesy: Rémih, CC BY-SA 3.0)

Unknown artist, Hypostyle Hall, c. 1250 B.C.E., sandstone and mud brick, Luxor, Egypt (Photo courtesy: Blalonde, CC 0)

Chapter 4: The Classical World – Greece and the Ancient Aegean

Pottery stemmed bowl decorated with a procession of riders in chariots, c. 1400-1300 B.C.E., terracotta. 42 cm high, Cyprus, Greece (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA- 4.0)

Map of Minoan Crete (Photo courtesy: Bibi Saint-Pol, CC BY-SA 3.0)

Rhyton in the form of a bull’s head (horns restored), c. 1500 – 1450 B.C.E., chlorite. 14.8 cm high, Archaeological Museum of Heraklion, Crete (Photo courtesy: Jebulon, CC 0)

Aerial map of the Knossos, c. 1700–1400 B.C.E., Crete, Greece (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0; underlying map © Google)

The North Portico at Knossos, c. 1700–1400 B.C.E., Crete, Greece (Photo courtesy: Bgag, CC BY-SA 3.0)

Ladies in Blue fresco (reconstructed), c. 1600 – 1450 B.C.E., fresco, Archaeological Museum of Heraklion, Crete (Photo courtesy: Hardwigg, CC BY-SA 2.0)

Bull-leaping fresco from the east wing of the palace of Knossos (reconstructed), c. 1400 B.C.E., fresco, 78.2 × 104.5 cm, Archaeological Museum of Heraklion, Crete (Photo courtesy: Jebulon, CC0)

Map of Mycenaean Greece 1400–1200 B.C.E. Palaces, main cities and other settlements. (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Mask of Agamemnon, from shaft grave V, Grave Circle A, Mycenae c.1550–1500 B.C.E., gold, 35cm, National Archaeological Museum, Athens (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Cyclopean masonry of the Lion Gate at Mycenae, c. 1300 – 1250 B.C.E., limestone, Mycenae, Greece (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Contemporary view of Knossos looking southwest from the Monumental North Entrance (photo: Theofanis Ampatzidis, CC BY-SA 4.0)

Lion Gate, Mycenae, c. 1300-1250 B.C.E. (Photo courtesy: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Dipylon master, Dipylon krater, c. 750 – 735 B.C.E., terracotta, 72.4 x 108.3 cm, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (Photo courtesy: Metropolitan Museum of Art, CC 0)

The Walters Painter, Corinthian black-figure amphora with animal frieze, c. 625 – 600 B.C.E., terracotta, 29 x 45 cm, The British Museum, London (Photo courtesy: The British Museum, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Unknown artist, Mantiklos Apollo, c. 700 – 675 B.C.E., bronze, 20.3 cm high, Museum of Fine Art, Boston (Photo courtesy: Museum of Fine Art, Boston, CC 0)

Unknown artist, Lady of Auxerre, c. 650 – 625 B.C.E., limestone, 75 cm high, Musée du Louvre, Paris (Photo courtesy: Jastrow, CC BY 2.5)

Unknown artist, Anavysos (Kroisos) Kouros, c. 530 B.C.E., marble, 193.04 cm high, National Archaeological Museum, Athens (Photo courtesy: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Aristion of Paros, Phrasikleia Kore, c. 550 – 540 B.C.E., Parian marble with traces of pigment, 211 cm high, National Archaeological Museum, Athens (Photo courtesy: Asaf Braverman, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Unknown artist, New York Kouros, c. 590 – 580 B.C.E., marble, 194.6 x 51.6 x 63.2 cm, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (Photo courtesy: Anagoria, CC BY 3.0)

Unknown artist, Kroisos, c. 530 BCE, marble, 194 cm high, National Archaeological Museum, Athens (Photo courtesy: Ricardo André Frantz, CC BY-SA 3.0)

Reconstruction of the Peplos Kore as Athena (Photo courtesy: Ismoon, CC BY 4.0)

Reconstruction of the Peplos Kore as Artemis (Photo courtesy: Ismoon, CC BY-SA 2.5)

Unknown artist, Kritios Boy, c. 480 BCE, marble, 116.7 cm high, Acropolis Museum, Athens (Photo courtesy: Tetraktys, CC BY-SA 3.0)

Niobid Painter, Niobid Krater, c. 460-50 B.C.E., terracotta, 54 x 56 cm, Musée du Louvre, Paris (Photo courtesy: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Polykleitos, Doryphoros (Spear-Bearer) or The Canon, c. 450-40 B.C.E., ancient Roman marble copy of the lost bronze original, 211 cm, Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli, Napes (Photo courtesy: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Iktinos and Callicrates, Parthenon, 447 – 432 B.C.E., Pentelic marble, 695 x 309 x 137.2 cm, Athens, Greece (Photo courtesy: Dimboukas, CC BY 2.0)

Athena defeats Alkyoneus (detail), The Pergamon Altar, c. 200-150 B.C.E., marble, 356.4 x 334 cm, Pergamon Museum, Berlin (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

A model of the acropolis of Pergamon in the 2nd century C.E. (Photo courtesy: Wladyslaw Sojka, CC BY-SA 3.0)

Unknown artist, Altar of Zeus, c. 175 B.C.E., marble, 35.64 x 33.4 m, Pergamon Museum, Berlin. (Photo courtesy: Jan Mehlich, CC BY-SA 3.0)

Epigonos, Dying Gaul, c. 230–220 B.C.E., marble (Roman copy of Greek bronze original), 93 cm high, Musei Capitolini, Rome (Photo courtesy: Alonso de Mendoza, CC BY-SA 3.0)

Unknown artist, Winged Victory of Samothrace, c. 190 B.C.E., Parian marble, 244 cm high, Musée du Louvre, Paris (Photo courtesy: Lyokoï, CC BY-SA 4.0)

Agesander, Athenodoros, and Polydorus,Laocoön and His Sons, early 1st century B.C.E., marble (copy of Hellenistic original), 240 cm high, Vatican Museums, Rome (Photo courtesy: Marie-Lan Nguyen, CC 0)

Chapter 5: Rise of an Empire – Etruria and the Roman World

Etruscan civilization, 750-500 B.C.E. (Photo courtesy: Norman Einstein, CC BY-SA 3.0)

Tomb of the Augurs, late 6th century B.C.E., Tarquinia (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

A model of Portonaccio Sanctuary of Menrva: c. 510 B.C.E., in Veii, Italy. (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Ground plan of an Etruscan temple (Photo courtesy: FinnWikiNo, CC BY-SA 3.0)

Unknown Artist, Apulu of Veii, c. 510-500 B.C.E., painted terracotta, 180 cm, Museo Nazionale di Villa Giulia, Rome (Photo courtesy: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Unknown artist, Marble bust of a man, mid-1st century C.E., marble, 36.5 cm high, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (Photo courtesy: Metropolitan Museum of Art, CC 0)

Ara Pacis Augustae (Altar of Augustan Peace), 9 B.C.E, marble, Ara Pacis Museum, Rome, Italy (Photo courtesy: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

The Pantheon, Rome, c. 125 (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Reconstruction by the Institute for Digital Media Arts Lab at Ball State University, exterior of the Pantheon, Rome, c. 125 C.E. (Project Director: John Filwalk, Project Advisors: Dr. Robert Hannah and Dr. Bernard Frischer) (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Schematic illustration of an arch (Photo courtesy: MesserWoland, CC BY-SA 3.0)

Pantheon dome (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Column of Trajan, completed 113 C.E., Carrera marble, 370 cm diameter, 384 cm high, Rome (Photo courtesy: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Battle between Romans and Dacians (detail), Column of Trajan, dedicated 113 C.E. (Photo courtesy: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Relief from the Arch of Constantine, 315 C.E., Rome, (Photo courtesy: F. Tronchin, CC BY-NC-ND 2.0)

Arch of Constantine, 312-315 C.E., older spolia, marble, and porphyry, 250 x 70 x 200 cm, Rome, Italy (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Diagram of the Arch of Constantine showing architectural features and spolia, 312-315 C.E., Rome (Photo courtesy: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Reliefs from the south side of the Arch of Constantine.), c. 117-138 C.E. and the frieze below, showing the Distribution of Largesse, era of Constantine, 312-315 C.E. (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Ground plan of the Basilica Nova in Rome (Photo courtesy, Fb78, CC 0)

Colossus of Constantine (head), c. 312-315 C.E., marble, 250 cm high, Musei Capitolini, Rome (Photo courtesy: Jean-Cristophe Benoist, CC BY-SA 3.0)

Chapter 6: The End of an Era – Late Antiquity and the Byzantine Empire

Pantheon, completed 126 C.E., Rome (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

A fresco from the catacombs of San Callisto (Photo courtesy: Boundless Art History, CC BY-SA 4.0)

Painting of the Good Shepherd motif is a fusion of pagan and Christian symbolism (Photo courtesy: Boundless Art History, CC BY-SA 4.0)

Colossus of Constantine, c. 312-315 C.E., marble, Musei Capitolini, Rome (Photo courtesy: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Old St. Peter’s Basilica, Rome, from: Giovanni Ciampini, De sacris aedificiis a Constantino Magno constructis: synopsis historica, 1693, p. 33 (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Plan of Old St Peter’s Basilica, showing atrium (courtyard), narthex (vestibule), central nave with double aisles, a bema for the clergy extending into a transept, and an exedra or semi-circular apse. (Photo courtesy: Amandajm, CC 0)

Typical floor plan of a cathedral, with the nave shaded. Photo courtesy: Benutzer:Algos, CC BY-SA 3.0)

Typical floor plan of a cathedral, with the transept shaded. (Photo courtesy: Lusitana, CC BY-SA 3.0)

Typical floor plan of a cathedral, with the exedra or semi-circular apse shaded. (Photo courtesy: Lusitana, CC BY-SA 3.0)

Typical floor plan of a cathedral, with the components labeled. (Photo courtesy: Lusitana, CC BY-SA 3.0)

The Latin Cross. (Photo courtesy: Kwamikagami, CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Greek Cross. (Photo courtesy: Kwamikagami, CC BY-SA 4.0)

Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus, 359 C.E., marble, Treasury, St. Peter’s Basilica (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Traditio legis, Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus, 359 C.E., marble, Treasury of St. Peter’s Basilica (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

An interior view of Hagia Sophia (Photo courtesy: Boundless Art History, CC BY-SA 4.0)

Justinian and his attendants (photo: byzantologist, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Chi-Rho. (Photo courtesy: Kwamikagami, CC BY-SA 4.0)

Staurogram (Tau-Rho). (Photo courtesy: Kwamikagami, CC BY-SA 4.0)

IX (Iota-Chi). (Photo courtesy: Broutille, CC BY-SA 4.0)

IHS/JHS. (Photo courtesy: AnonMoos, CC 0)

Theokotos and Child (Photo courtesy: Boundless Art History, CC BY-SA 4.0)

The division of the Byzantine Empire after its sacking in 1204 by the French and Italian armies during the Fourth Crusades. (Photo courtesy: Boundless Art History, CC BY-SA 4.0)

Chora church plan with the reused portions of the older naos highlighted in pink (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Chapter 7: Encoding Divine Revelation – Art of the Islamic World

View of the Great Mosque of Xi’an, Shaanxi, China (photo: Alex Berger, CC BY-NC 2.0)

The Kaaba, pre-Islamic monument, rededicated by Muhammad in 631-32 C.E., multiple renovations, granite masonry, covered with silk curtain and calligraphy in gold and silver-wrapped thread, Mecca, Saudi Arabia (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

View of pilgrims performing Tawaf (circumambulating) the Kaaba from the gate of Abdul Aziz (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

The Kaaba at al-Haram Mosque, 2008 (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

The Dome of the Rock (Qubbat al-Sakhra), Umayyad, stone masonry, wooden roof, decorated with glazed ceramic tile, mosaics, and gilt aluminum and bronze dome, 691-2, with multiple renovations, patron the Caliph Abd al-Malik, Jerusalem (photo: Gary Lee Todd, CC 0)

Interior of the Dome of the Rock (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Sectional axonometric view through dome (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Mosaic detail from the Dome of the Rock (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Interior of the Dome of the Rock with partial inscription, 691-92, Jerusalem (Photo courtesy: Virtutepetens, CC BY-SA 4.0)

Mimar Sinan, courtyard of the Süleymaniye Mosque, İstanbul, 1558 (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Mihrab & minbar, Mosque of Sultan Hassan, Cairo, 1356-63 (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Medallion Carpet, The Ardabil Carpet, Unknown artist (Maqsud Kashani is named on the carpet’s inscription), Persian: Safavid Dynasty, silk warps and wefts with wool pile (25 million knots, 340 per sq. inch), 1539-40 C.E., Tabriz, Kashan, Isfahan or Kirman, Iran (Victoria and Albert Museum) (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Diagram reconstruction of the Prophet’s House, Medina, Saudi Arabia (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Sahn and minaret, Great Mosque of Kairouan, Tunisia, c. 836-75 (Photo courtesy: Andrew Watson, CC BY-SA 2.0)

Maqsura, Great Mosque of Kairouan, Tunisia (Photo courtesy: Prof. Richard Mortel, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Great Mosque of Cordoba from the air (Photo courtesy: Ulamm, CC BY-SA 3.0)

Interior of the Great Mosque of Cordoba, Spain, 8th-10th centuries (Photo courtesy: Timor Espallargas, CC BY-SA 2.5)

Mihrab dome, Great Mosque at Cordoba (Photo courtesy: bongo vongo, CC BY-SA 2.0)

Street view of the Grand Bazaar of Isfahan with the Great Mosque dome in the distance (Photo coutresy: Saif Alnuweiri, CC BY-NC-ND 2.0)

View of three (of four) Iwans, Great Mosque of Isfahan, Iran, 11th – 17th centuries, looking toward the south (qibla) iwan (Photo courtesy: reibai, CC BY 2.0)

Anthemius of Tralles and Isidore of Miletus, Hagia Sophia, 537, Istanbul (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Chapter 8: The Art of Christendom – The Middle Ages in Europe

The Sutton Hoo helmet, early 7th century, iron and tinned copper alloy helmet, consisting of many pieces of iron, now built into a reconstruction, 31.8 x 21.5 cm (as restored) (Photo courtesy: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Replica of the helmet made by the Royal Armories (The British Museum) (Photo courtesy: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Map with present-day nations (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0; underlying map © Google)

Palatine Chapel exterior, Aachen, consecrated 805, Carolingian structure visible (lower two stories) (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Floorplans of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, Jerusalem; Basilica of San Vitale, Ravenna; and Palatine Chapel, Aachen (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Palatine Chapel Interior (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

The Four Evangelists as illustrated in the Book of Kells (Photo courtesy: Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Otto I presenting the Cathedral of Magdeburg (detail), 962–968, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (Photo courtesy: Metropolitan Museum of Art, CC 0)

Lindisfarne Gospels, St Matthew, Cross-Carpet page, f.26v (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Lindisfarne Gospels, St Luke, incipit page, f.139 (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Lindesfarne Gospels, St. Luke, portrait page, 137v (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Saint Matthew, folio 18 verso of the Ebbo Gospels (Gospel Book of the Archbishop of Reims) from Hautvillers, France, c. 816-35, ink and tempera on vellum, 10 1/4 x 8 1/4 (Bibliothèque Municipale, Épernay) (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Double page opening: Provinces Bringing Tribute (f.23v.) and Ruler Portrait of Otto III, Gospels of Otto III, c. 1000, each page 33.4 x 24.2 cm, ink, gold, paint, parchment (Munich, Bayerische Stattsbibliothek, Clm.4453, fol. 23-24) (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Ruler portrait of Otto III (f.24), Gospels of Otto III (Munich, Bayerische Stattsbibliothek, Clm.4453) (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Maria Laach Abbey, Germany (Photo courtesy: Boundless Art History, CC BY-SA 4.0)

View of the nave, looking toward the apse—the row of windows above the nave arcade is called the clerestory and we see an aisle on either side of the nave. Interior of Santa Sabina, an early Roman Christian church, 422-432 C.E. (Photo courtesy: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Typical floor plan of a cathedral, with the components labeled. (Photo courtesy: Lusitana, CC BY-SA 3.0)

Reliquary of St. Foy at Conque Abbey (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

The parts of a Romanesque portal Abbey (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Old Testament prophet (Jeremiah or Isaiah?), right side of the trumeau of the south portal of Saint-Pierre, Moissac, c. 1115-30. Photo: Nick Thompson (CC BY-NC 2.0)

Tympanum from the south portal, Saint-Pierre, Moissac, c. 1115-30 (photo: Nick Thompson, CC BY-NC 2.0)

Virgin from Ger, second half of the 12th century, wood, tempera, and stucco, 51.8 x 20.5 x 15.5 cm (Museu Nacional d’Art de Catalunya, Barcelona) (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Virgin, c. 1330-40, carved alabaster with remains of polychrome and gold leaf, 42.5 x 112 cm (Museu Nacional d’Art de Catalunya, Barcelona) (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Enthroned Virgin and Child, 1150-1200, Auvergne, France, walnut with gesso, paint, tin leaf, and traces of linen, 27 inches (Cloisters Collection, The Metropolitan Museum of Art) (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

East end of Salisbury Cathedral (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Abbey Church of Saint Denis (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Open tracery at Southwell Minster (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Interior of Cologne Cathedral (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Wells Cathedral, Somerset, England (Photo courtesy: Boundless Art History, CC BY-SA 4.0)

Röttgen Pietà, c. 1300-25, painted wood, 34 1/2 inches high (Rheinisches Landesmuseum, Bonn) (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Pietà, c. 1420, polychromed poplar wood, 92 cm high, Austrian (Harvard Art Museums) (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Miniature from The Hours of Mary of Burgundy(Photo courtesy: Boundless Art History, CC BY-SA 4.0)

Scenes from the Apocalypse, Paris-Oxford-London Bible moralisée, France, c. 1225-45 (The British Library, Harley MS 1527 fol. 140v). (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Chapter 9: Empires of the East – Art of Ancient China

Map of the Shang (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0; underlying map © Google)

Inscribed tortoise carapace (“oracle bone”), Anyang period, late Shang dynasty, c. 1300–1050 B.C.E., tortoise shell, China, 6.5 high x 10.8 x 2.3 cm, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Jade disc, or bi, Liangzhu culture, c. 2500 B.C.E., 18 cm in diameter, British Museum, London (Photo courtesy: Khan Academy, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

Map of the Qin Empire (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0; underlying map © Google)

Mausoleum of Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi, Overview of Pit 1 (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Map of the Han dynasty, c. 60 B.C.E. (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Nesting coffins of Lady Dai (Xin Zhui), 2nd century B.C.E., wood, lacquered exteriors and interiors, 256 x 118 x 114 cm, 230 x 92 x 89 cm and 202 x 69 x 63cm, Hunan Provincial Museum, China (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Diagram of Funeral Banner of Lady Dai (Xin Zhui), 2nd century B.C.E., silk, 205 x 92 and 47.7 cm Hunan Provincial Museum, China (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Body of Lady Dai with mourners (detail), Funeral banner of Lady Dai (Xin Zhui), 2nd century B.C.E., silk, 205 x 92 x 47.7 cm, Hunan Provincial Museum, China (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Heavenly realm (detail), Funeral banner of Lady Dai (Xin Zhui), 2nd century B.C.E., silk, 205 x 92 x 47.7 cm Hunan Provincial Museum, China (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Camel, c. 690–750, glazed earthenware (Photo courtesy: Khan Academy, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Traveling monk, 10th century, ink and colors on paper, Cave 17, The British Museum, London (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Mogao Caves (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Western Paradise, Cave-temple 172, Tang dynasty, Dunhuang, Gansu province (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

The Song dynasty at its greatest extent in 1111 (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Guan ware long-necked vase with raised bow-string decoration, 12th century, stoneware with Guan glaze, 23.2 x 14.1 cm, Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington D.C. (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Zhu Xiuli, Landscape, c. 1985-89, handscroll, ink and colour on paper, 30.3 cm high, The British Museum, London (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) Dong Qichang, Landscape, c. 1555-1636, hanging scroll painting, 95.25 x 42.5 cm, The British Museum, London (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Hu Youkun, Landscape in “boneless” style, mid 17th century, an album leaf painting, The British Museum, London (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Chapter 10: Mesoamerica and the Andes – Art of the Native Americas

Map of Mesoamerica, with the borders of modern countries (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Indigenous languages in Mexico currently spoken by more than 100,000 people (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Marriage between Lord 8 Deer and Lady 13 Serpent, Codex Zouche-Nuttall folio 27, c. 1450 CE, deerskin, British Museum, London (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Codex Féjervary-Mayer, 15th century, f. 1, World Museum, Liverpool (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Ball Court Model, Mexico, Nayarit, c. 200 B.C.E.–500 C.E., ceramic with slip and other pigments, 15.24 x 21.59 x 34.29 cm, Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Map showing the extent of the Maya civilization (red), compared to all other Mesoamerica cultures (black) (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Glyphs from Lintel 25, c. 725, limestone, 121 x 85.5 x 13.5 cm, British Museum, London (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Yaxchilán lintel 24, structure 23, after 709 C.E., limestone, 109 x 78 x 6 cm, British Museum, London (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Lady K’abal Xook pulling a thorned rope through her tongue (detail), Yaxchilán lintel 24, after 709 C.E., limestone, 109 x 78 x 6 cm, British Museum, London (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Shield Jaguar (detail), Yaxchilán lintel 24, structure 23, after 709 C.E., limestone, 109 x 78 x 6 cm, British Museum, London (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Map of the Mexica/Aztec capital city, Tenochtitlan (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Empire of Moctezuma II in 1519 (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Seated figure of Mictlantecuhtli, c. 1325-1521 C.E., Mexica, sandstone, 60 x 27 cm, British Museum, London (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Codex Borgia, c. 1500, p. 25, Vatican Library, Rome (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Codex Borgia, facsimile (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Codex Borgia, c. 1500, p. 23, Vatican Library, Rome (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Codex Borgia, c. 1500, p. 28, Vatican Library, Rome (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Glyphs for the days and year, Tlaloc (god) wearing the costume elements of Xiuhtlecuhtli (Fire Lord) and a goddess wearing the headdress of Chalchitlucue, Codex Borgia, c. 1500, p. 28, Vatican Library, Rome (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Tlaloc, Codex Borgia, c. 1500, f. 28, Vatican Library, Rome (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Map of South America showing the Andes (Photo courtesy: Mapswire, CC BY 4.0)

Hummigbird, Nasca geoglyph, over 300 feet in length, created approximately 2000 years ago (photo: Diego Delso, CC BY-SA 4.0)

Mantle, created to wrap a mummified body (“The Paracas Textile“), Nasca, 100-300 C.E., cotton, camelid fiber, 148 x 62.2 cm (Brooklyn Museum) (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

A bead from a necklace buried with the Old Lord of Sipán, 300-390 C.E., gold, 3 × 5.2 × 4.5 × 8.3 cm (photo: Sarahh Scher, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Map showing the location of the Nasca geoglyphs (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Monkey with Spiral Tail, Nasca Geoglyph, approximately 2000 years old (photo: Diego Delso, CC BY-SA 4.0)

Spider, Nasca Geoglyph, over 300 feet in length, formed approximately 2000 years ago (Photo courtesy: Diego Delso, CC BY-SA 4.0)

Nasca, Mantle (“The Paracas Textile”), 100-300 C.E., cotton, camelid fiber, 148 x 62.2 cm, Brooklyn Museum, New York (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Detail of border figure 16, Nasca, Mantle (“The Paracas Textile”), 100-300 C.E., cotton, camelid fiber, 148 x 62.2 cm, Brooklyn Museum, New York (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Detail of border figures (composite photo), Nasca, Mantle (“The Paracas Textile”), 100-300 C.E., cotton, camelid fiber, 148 x 62.2 cm, Brooklyn Museum, New York (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Detail with face ornament, border figure 63, Nasca, Mantle (“The Paracas Textile”), 100-300 C.E., cotton, camelid fiber, 148 x 62.2 cm, Brooklyn Museum, New York (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Inka quipu, Museo Larco, Lima, Peru (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

All-T’oqapu Tunic, Inka, 1450–1540, camelid fiber and cotton, 90.2 x 77.15 cm, Dumbarton Oaks, Washington D.C. (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Female figurine, 1400–1533, Inka, silver-gold alloy, 14.9 x 3.5 cm, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Camelid figurine, 1400-1533, Inka, alloys of silver, gold and copper, 5.1 cm high, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Twelve-sided stone, Cusco, c. 1440-1540 (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Stone doorways, Qoricancha, Cusco (Photo courtesy: Jean Robert Thibault, CC BY-SA 2.0)

Interpreting History: the Importance and Limitations of Source Materials

Unknown artist, The Portrait of Terentius Neo, c. 55 – 79 C.E., fresco, 65 x 58 cm, Museo archeologico nazionale, Naples (Photo courtesy: Anonimski, CC 0)

Megara Hyblaea, main road, looking north (Photo courtesy: Alun Salt, CC BY-SA 2.0)

Painter of the Madrid Fountain, Attic Black-Figure Hydria, c. 520 B.C.E. black-figure pottery, 45.6 x 35 cm, Museo Arqueológico Nacional, Madrid (Photo courtesy: Marie-Lan Nguyen, CC BY 2.5)

Detail of inscription, The Gortyn Code, c. fifth century B.C.E, marble 100 x 150 cm, Gortyn, Crete | Close-up of part of the inscription. (Photo courtesy: Zdeněk Kratochvíl, CC BY-SA 4.0)

Ramses II slays an enemy while he tramples on another in the battle of Kadesh. Abu Simbel (Photo courtesy: Ismoon, CC BY-SA 3.0)

The Hittite Empire at the height of its power (red), bordering on the Egyptian Empire (green). (Photo courtesy: Thureson, CC BY-SA 3.0)

Battle scene from the Great Kadesh reliefs of Ramses II (Photo courtesy: James Henry Breasted, CC 0)

Iconography of Authority: Depicting Power in the Ancient World

Pit 1, Army of the First Emperor, Qin dynasty, Lintong, China, c. 210 B.C.E., painted terracotta (Photo courtesy: mararie, CC BY-SA 2.0)

Mausoleum of Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi today, (Photo courtesy: 申威隆 , CC BY-SA 3.0)

Plan of the tomb complex, Mausoleum of Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi (diagram Weixing Zhang) (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Front and back view of Kneeling Archer, Mausoleum of Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Photo courtesy: Metropolitan Museum of Art, CC 0)

War Chariot, Mausoleum of Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi, c. 210 B.C.E. (Photo courtesy: Tiffany, CC BY-NC 2.0)

Horses, Mausoleum of Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi (Photo courtesy: Erwyn van der Meer, CC BY-NC-ND 2.0)

Victory Stele of Naram-Sin, 2254-2218 B.C.E., pink limestone, Akkadian, Musée du Louvre, Paris (Photo courtesy: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Victory Stele of Naram-Sin (detail), 2254-2218 B.C.E., pink limestone, Akkadian, Musée du Louvre, Paris (Photo courtesy: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Great Pyramids of Giza, Khufu (c.2600-2550 B.C.E.), Khafre (c.2575-2525 B.C.E.) and Menkaure (c.2525-2475 B.CE.) (Photo courtesy: Tim Kelley, CC BY-ND 2.0)

Great Sphinx, Giza, Egypt, c. 2520 – 2494 B.C.E. (Photo courtesy: Alexander C. Kafka, CC BY-ND 2.0)

Augustus of Primaporta, 1st century C.E., marble, 2.03 meters high, Vatican Museums, Rome (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Detail of Cupid on a dolphin, Augustus of Primaporta, 1st century C.E., marble, 2.03 meters high, Vatican Museums, Rome (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Detail of breastplate, Augustus of Primaporta, 1st century C.E., marble, 2.03 meters high, Vatican Museums, Rome (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Rattle Staff: Oba Akenzua I Standing on an Elephant (Ukhurhe),1725–50, Edo, Nigeria, bronze, copper and iron, 161.3 x 4.8 cm, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, (Photo courtesy: Metropolitan Museum of Art, CC 0)

Detail, Rattle Staff: Oba Akenzua I Standing on an Elephant (Ukhurhe),1725–50, Edo, Nigeria, bronze, copper and iron, 161.3 x 4.8 cm, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, (Photo courtesy: Metropolitan Museum of Art, CC 0)

Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, Napoleon on his Imperial Throne, 1806, oil on canvas, 260 x 163 cm, Musée de l’Armée, Paris (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Staff with an image of Charlemagne (detail), Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, Napoleon on his Imperial Throne, 1806, oil on canvas, 260 x 163 cm, Musée de l’Armée, Paris (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

U.S. soldiers cover the face of a statue of Saddam Hussein with an American flag before toppling the statue in downtown in Baghdad, Iraq. (Photo courtesy: © LAURENT REBOURS/AP)

Lu Xun Art College Artists, Chairman Mao is the reddest red sun in our hearts, 1967 poster, Westminster Chinese Poster Collection (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Who Owns Culture?: the Preservation and Destruction of Cultural Heritage

Lysippos of Sikyon, Apoxyomenos (Scraper), Hellenistic or Roman copy after 4th c. Greek original, c. 390-306 B.C.E., marble, Museo Pio-Clementino, Vatican (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory; CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

People taking photos of the Mona Lisa (Photo courtesy: Heather Anne Campbell; CC BY-NC-ND 2.0)

Limestone statue of a military commander in his uniform holding a statue of a deity. Assryian Hall, Iraqi Museum, Iraq (Photo courtesy: Soldier 16IQ; CC BY-SA 4.0)

The torture and martyrdom of the iconophile Bishop Euthymius of Sardeis by the iconoclast Byzantine Emperor Michael II in 824, 13th century C.E., illuminated manuscript, Chronography of John Skylitzes, cod. 338, folio 28v, Madrid National Library (Photo courtesy: Alonso de Mendoza, CC 0)

The Crucifixion and the Iconoclasts, folio 67r in the Chludov Psalter, c 850-875 C.E., illuminated manuscript, The State Historical Museum, Moscow, Russia (Photo courtesy: Shakko, CC 0)

The impact of mass tourism on the historic city of Venice (Photo courtesy: Alessandro Giumelli/World Monuments Fund)

The Acropolis of Athens viewed from the Hill of the Muses (Photo courtesy: Carole Raddato; CC BY-SA 2.0)

Unknown photographer, The Calf-Bearer and the Kritios Boy Shortly After Exhumation on the Acropolis, 1865, albumen silver print from glass negative, The Metropolitan Museum of Art (Photo courtesy: The Metropolitan Museum of Art; CC 0)

Remains of materials from the temples destroyed during the Persian sack of the Acropolis, such as column-drums (shown here) and a triglyph-metope frieze, were incorporated into the North Wall (Photo courtesy: Gary Todd; CC 0)

The Older Parthenon foundation is located below the newer construction (Photo courtesy: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

We can still see traces of the Persian shields from Alexander the Great that were at one point below the metopes. The blue circles indicate roughly were they would have been located (Photo courtesy: Steven Zucker; CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Wounded Gaul, from the Small Pergamene Votive Offering, Roman copy of the 2nd century C.E.. from a Greek original of the 2nd century B.C.E., Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples, Italy (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Holes for bronze letters of an inscription honoring the Roman emperor Nero on the east façade of the Parthenon, created and then removed in the 60s C.E. (Photo courtesy: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Reconstruction drawing of the church inside the Parthenon by M. Korres from Panayotis Tournikiotis, The Parthenon and Its Impact in Modern Times, New York, 1996 (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Metope from the east side of the Parthenon showing the battle of men and Amazons, heavily cut down by early Christians (Photo courtesy: Gary Todd; CC 0)

Pierre Peytier, The Ottoman mosque built in the ruins of the Parthenon after 1715, c. early 1830s, watercolor on paper (Photo courtesy: Cplakidas; CC 0)

Bronze statue of a nude male figure (This sculpture was likely looted from a site in Turkey.), Greek or Roman, Hellenistic or Imperial, c. 200 B.C.E. – c. 200 C.E. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (Photo courtesy: Smarthistory; CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Anthropological drawings of Kachina dolls (tihu-tui) representing kachinas, or spirits, made by the Hopi people, from Jesse Walter Fewkes, Dolls of the Tusayan Indians, 1894, E.J. Brill, Leiden, Netherlands, Plate 11 (Photo courtesy: Chetvorno; CC 0)

Euphronios, Sarpedon Krater, (signed by Euxitheos as potter and Euphronios as painter), c. 515 B.C.E., red-figure terracotta, National Museum Cerite, Cerveteri, Italy ((Photo courtesy: Smarthistory; CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Sacred Spaced, Sacred Realms: Religious Centers and Pilgrimage Routes

Nahuatl hieroglyph of Tenochtitlan, from Codex Mendoza (Photo courtesy: AztecEmpireEmbassy; CC BY-SA 4.0)

Aerial views of the Temple Mount and parts of the Old City of Jerusalem (Photo courtesy: Andrew Shiva; CC BY-SA 4.0)

Iconostasis at Holy Trinity Cathedral in Chicago, Illinois (Photo courtesy: Jeremy A; CC BY-SA 3.0)

In Benares (Varanasi), some 40,000 cremations are performed each year,. Along with the remains of these traditional funerals, there are thousands more who cannot afford cremation and whose bodies are simply placed into the Ganges. The Manikarnika Cremation Ghat, is the most auspicious place to be cremated in Varanasi. (Photo courtesy: Dennis Jarvis; CC BY-SA 2.0)

A sweat lodge is a low profile hut, typically dome-shaped or oblong, and made with natural materials (Photo courtesy: Mgodiseo; CC BY-SA 4.0

The Kaaba and the Masjid Al-Haram during Hajj (Photo courtesy: Al Jazeera English; CC BY-SA 2.0)

Stonehenge, Prehistoric, England, 3000-2000 BCE (Photo courtesy: Andy Powell; CC BY 2.0)

The temple of Apollo (the centre of the Delphi oracle and Pythia) dated to the 4th century BC (Photo courtesy: Helen Simonsson; CC BY-SA 3.0)

Pyramid of the Sun, Teotihuacan Culture, Mexico, 150–225 AD (Photo courtesy: Tristan Higbee; CC BY 2.0)

Great Stupa, Sanchi, India, third century BCE (Photo courtesy: Eileen Delhi; CC BY-NC 2.0)

Torana from the Great Stupa, Sanchi, India, third century BCE (Photo courtesy: solarisgirl; CC BY-SA 2.0)

Wooden Shinto temple at Ise Jingū (Temple of Ise), Japan (Photo courtesy: Bernhard Scheid; CC BY-NC 2.0)

Depiction of the Relocation of the Grand Shrine of Ise, Japan (Photo courtesy: The British Museum; CC BY-NC 4.0)

Aerial views of the Temple Mount and parts of the Old City of Jerusalem (Photo courtesy: Andrew Shiva; CC BY-SA 4.0)

Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem, Israel, 691 AD (Photo courtesy: Patrick McKay; CC BY-NC 2.0)

Church of the Holy Sepulcher (Photo courtesy: Gerd Eichmann; CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Altar of the Crucifixion, where the alleged rock of Calvary (bottom) is encased in glass (Photo courtesy: Ondřej Žváček; CC BY 2.5)