Grammar is how words and other communicative symbols are traditionally, and meaningfully, arranged. Most people think of grammar as a “set of rules,” but grammar is actually a set of norms—a way particular groups of people agree to arrange their written language so that others within the group can understand them. Grammar, like language, shifts across time and space. Its norms depend on the communities using it.

There is no such thing as “good” or “bad” grammar. There is, instead, grammar that is recognizable and/or acceptable to particular groups of people in particular spaces and grammar that is not recognizable and/or acceptable to particular groups of people in particular spaces. For example, we all use punctuation very differently in texts to our friends compared to essays we might write for our “Introduction to Psychology” class. Being able to recognize and deploy different grammar styles when you need them is the key to developing your own voice across different genres and for different communities.

Punctuation Glossary

Apostrophes

Comma Basics

Colon

Ellipses

Exclamation Point

Question Mark

Quotation Marks

Parenthesis

Period

Semicolon

Basic Sentence Structure

A complete sentence has a complete idea or thought, meaning it 1) identifies a subject and 2) tells the reader a thing the subject did or something the subject is. Complete sentences are also called independent clauses, meaning they can stand on their own.

Ex. Jack and Jill ran up the hill.

Ex. Ring around the roses, pockets full of posies.

An incomplete sentence is missing a subject or verb or is not a complete thought or idea. Incomplete sentences are also called dependent clauses, meaning they cannot stand alone, or sentence fragments.

Ex. The boy who lived

Ex. Raindrops on roses and whiskers on kittens.

Norms for Combining Clauses

Independent + Comma + coordinating + Independent

Ex. The cat sprayed the inflatable snowman, so blow-up Frosty tumbled on the feline.
Ex. Natalee is very eager to try new sports this schoolyear, and she has plans to maintain straight A’s as well.

Independent + semicolon + transition word + comma +Independent

Ex. Alfred and Monique are always bickering about mundane matters; for example, they spent 35 minutes arguing about where to eat last night.
Ex. The house we just looked at is the biggest of them all; however, there was no garage or pool.

Independent + semicolon + Independent

Ex. The assignments in my anatomy class are interesting but complicated; the project I turned in yesterday took me nearly three weeks to finish.
Ex. Everyone knows how difficult it is to be a full-time student with a full-time job; the amount of time can easily demand 30 hours per week for each.

Dependent (leads with a subordinating) + comma + Independent (dependent lead also known as an introductory clause)

Ex. Although he was a good swimmer, he sank to the bottom of the pool like a brick.
Ex. As the dog ran away from his owner, he trampled through the neighbor’s flower bed causing huge mess.

Independent + Dependent (leads with a subordinating)

Ex. The students were eager to return to school because there were only two weeks left in the semester.
Ex. The class was not ready to review previous lessons when the school day began.

Creating Sentence Variation

Combining sentences can be tricky. Use the above review as a guide.

Simple sentences-1 independent clause (a subject, a verb, a complete thought)

Ex: I caught a big fish.
James really likes strawberry ice cream.
Angie and Fred have been dating for 3 months.

Compound Sentences-2 or more independent clauses joined together using a COORDINATING CONJUNCTION (FANBOYS-see the above review) and the correct punctuation.
Form compound sentences by combining 2 or more simple sentences.

Ex: I caught a big fish, but I threw it back into the lake.
James really likes strawberry ice cream, yet he ordered a gigantic banana split at Braum’s tonight.
Angie and Fred have been dating for 3 months; therefore, he decided it was time to finally introduce her to his friends.

Complex Sentences-these have at least 1 dependent and 1 independent clause. Remember that dependent clauses start with SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS or RELATIVE PRONOUNS!

Ex: George has a huge belly.
George eats way too much junk food.
*Because George eats way too much junk food, he has a huge belly.
Alex had an awful car accident.
Alex bought a brand-new silver Honda Accord.
* After she had an awful car accident, Alex bought a brand-new silver Honda Accord.

Compound Complex Sentences-these have at least 2 independent clauses and at least 1 dependent clause.

Ex: Sasha’s make-up tutorials recently went viral on Instagram.
She is now one of the most popular Insta Influencers.
Her top tutorial videos have over a million views.
* Sasha’s make-up tutorials recently went viral on Instagram; since her top tutorial videos have over a million views, she is now one of the most popular Insta Influencers.

To make your sentences even more varied, do the following:

• Use introductory words and phrases
• Move sentence parts
• Vary sentence types

Using or Avoiding Sentence Fragments

A sentence fragment is a phrase that cannot stand on its own.

For example, the fragment lacks a key element, such as a subject, an appropriate verb, or any context that would “complete” the thought.

One type of sentence fragment begins with a word that signals belonging with—or depending upon—another phrase; these fragment types are subordinate or dependent clauses. Words that signal a dependent clause include:

• for, as, since, therefore, hence, consequently, though, due to, provided that, because, unless, once, while, when, whenever, where, wherever, before,  after
• that, which, who, whom, whichever, whoever, whomever, whose.

Got it? Here are a few examples of different types of sentence fragments:

• Six a.m.: the first day of class.
• My aunt saying, “No corran, don’t run.”
• Which makes these stories, rife as they are with darkness, violence, and suffering, both psychologically realistic and viscerally thrilling.
• That the speaking profits me, beyond any other effect.

All of these examples come from published works in which the writer intended to compose a sentence fragment: Azar Nafisi’s memoir about teaching banned books in Iran, Gloria Anzaldúa’s essay about the lived history of borderlands in Texas, Judy Berman’s March 29, 2023, Time magazine essay about popular television shows that feature powerful women, and Audre Lorde’s 1977 essay about transforming silence into action. We’ll read the full passages later in this lesson, but first, let’s practice what we’ve learned so far.

Are fragments okay sometimes?

In everyday speech, in creative writing, and in informal communications, we use sentence fragments all the time. Here’s a short dialogue that includes a sentence fragment:

• Question: Where are you going?
• Answer: To the library.

The answer is a sentence fragment, but we understand the meaning because it’s part of the conversation. We understand it because we understand the context. (By the way, how often or in what situations would you answer such questions in the complete sentence, “I am going to the library”?)

Let’s reconsider our initial sentence fragments. Despite being grammatically incomplete, each of our three examples is understood when read in the context of the story or article.

Here are excerpts from which the sample fragments were taken. (Want to read more? See the Works Cited section for information about the full texts of each excerpt.)

In the fields, la migra. My aunt saying, “No corran, don’t run. They’ll think you’re del otro lao.” In the confusion, Pedro ran, terrified of being caught. He couldn’t speak English, couldn’t tell them he was fifth generation American. Sin papeles—he did not carry his birth certificate to work in the fields. (Anzaldúa 26)

Not that Yellowjackets and its ilk are utopian counterparts to the patriarchal dystopia of The Handmaid’s Tale. They harbor no illusions that all girls are inherently peaceful or kind or perfect. Which makes these stories, rife as they are with darkness, violence, and suffering, both psychologically realistic and viscerally thrilling. Yet they also embody a women’s movement, weary from so many fallen idols and so much lost ground, in the midst of an existential crisis. (Berman)

Six a.m.: the first day of class. I was already up. Too excited to eat breakfast, I put the coffee on and then took a long, leisurely shower. … For the first time in many years, … I would not need to go through the tortuous rituals that had marked my days when I taught at the university—rituals governing what I was forced to wear, how I was expected to act, the gestures I had to remember to control. For this class, I would prepare differently. (Nafisi 9)

I have come to believe over and over again that what is most important to me must be spoken, made verbal and shared, even at the risk of having it bruised or misunderstood. That the speaking profits me, beyond any other effect. I am standing here as a Black lesbian poet, and the meaning of all that waits upon the fact that I am still alive, and might not have been. Less than two months ago I was told by two doctors, one female and one male, that I would have to have breast surgery, and that there was a 60 to 80 percent chance that the tumor was malignant. (Lorde 40).

When should I avoid fragments?

In professional, academic, and other formal contexts, sentence fragments are considered incorrect or inappropriate to the rhetorical situation. For example, in a formal letter that’s part of a job application, these opening lines could cost the writer a chance at the position:

Dear Mrs. Janeway,

Please accept my application. For the copy editor position. Because I would be really good at it. Really.

As discussed in the previous section, sometimes we use sentence fragments as a way to emphasize a point, draw attention to a detail, introduce a conversational tone in our writing, and other rhetorical purposes. But the above letter does not work this way or for that purpose. For a copy-editor position, the writer would be expected to punctuate the opening phrases in one coherent sentence, perhaps this way:

Please accept my application for the copy editor position, because I would be really good at it.

That’s a complete sentence. Of course, it may not be the most effective sentence, because the writer may be misreading the situation. In a formal application letter, in other words, we expect a detailed list of qualifications or a formal statement, rather than the casual “because I would be really good at it” and the extra “really.” What do you think would be a better concluding phrase for the sentence?

How can I fix fragments?

Now that you have a better idea what sentence fragments are and what rhetorical situations allow or discourage them, how can you fix them when you find them?

Remember: In informal situations and for some written works, fragments are okay. They suit the rhetorical situation, such as a conversation, an informal communication, or a special purpose. You might use a fragment in your narrative or story, especially if you’re speaking. However, in most formal, academic, and professional writing, sentence fragments are viewed as mistakes or as rhetorically inappropriate.

Here are a few examples of fragments and a possible fix for each one. Sometimes the fix is as simple as replacing a period with a comma, so that the fragment is joined with the sentence it adds information to. Sometimes, the fix means adding a subject or verb. Sometimes, the fix means changing the verb to a more conventional or grammatical form. Sometimes, playing with the order of phrases or adding context can fix the problem.

• If I can find my phone. We can go.
  • If I can find my phone, we can go.
  • If I can find my phone, then we can go.
• She said we can go. If I finish my homework..
  • She said we can go if I finish my homework.
  • If I finish my homework, she said, we can go.
• Grandfather saying, “Let’s go.”
  • Grandfather said, “Let’s go.”
  • Grandfather says, “Let’s go.”
  • I heard my grandfather saying, “Let’s go.”
• I need to my find my phone. Because my wallet is with it.
  • I need to find my phone, because my wallet is with it.
  • My wallet is with my phone, which I need to find.

Using or Avoiding Run-On Sentences

A run-on sentence is one in which two or more independent phrases are incorrectly or inadequately combined. That is, the phrases run together, lacking punctuation or transition words — or mis-punctuating these elements. As a result, intended meanings often get lost. Here are a few examples of different types of run-on sentences:

1. I went to school, I came home.
2. The bus stopped on Elm Street I missed it.
3. He loved going to school, however his sister hated going to school.
4. He went to school and she went to work and they came home later.

These examples represent common types of run-on sentences, including a comma-splice (1), a fused sentence (2), a hybrid of both fusion and splicing (3), and a polysyndeton that strings together several sentences joined only by conjunctions, with no punctuation (4).

That’s a lot to think about, isn’t it? Fortunately, the type of run-on sentence is less important than being able to recognize one and fix the problem. With that in mind, check out the short video in the Recap section, then let’s practice finding run-ons. For a short review of run-ons and comma splices, watch this Khan Academy video, which runs less than 5 minutes:  https://youtu.be/Fh45mhVsZrU.

Are run-on sentences wrong?

In a face-to-face conversation, we don’t need punctuation markers to help our audience understand our meaning—unless you’re Dr. Evil using air-quotes in the Austin Powers movie (the Know Your Memes archive shares a few GIFs of Dr. Evil).

Memes aside, in written communications, we rely on a set of grammar and punctuation rules that help our readers understand us when we are not in a face-to-face interaction with them (or watching a video or listening to a podcast). Periods, commas, semi-colons, em dashes (i.e., a long hyphen), question marks, exclamation points, and colons all help us make sense of the strings of words we call sentences, paragraphs, essays, and more. Without such clues, run-on sentences interfere with how our readers interpret a text.

We could describe the run-ons as demonstrating “bad grammar” or “faulty mechanics” or “sloppy punctuation.” But it may be more useful to think of them as ineffective because they muddle our meaning. It’s also more useful to learn how to recognize them in our written communications, identify the underlying problem, and try a more effective approach. Let’s give it a try.

How do I fix run-on sentences?

Let’s compare a few run-ons with revisions that apply standard punctuation and help clarify what we mean to say. Notice that most of the examples can be fixed in more than one way, depending on what you want to communicate and how you want to communicate it.

• I went to school, I came home.
  • I went to school. I came home.
  • I went to school; I came home.
  • I went to school, then I came home.
• The bus stopped on Elm Street I missed it.
  • The bus stopped on Elm Street, but I missed it.
  • The bus stopped on Elm Street, and I missed it.
  • The bus stopped on Elm Street. I missed it!
• He loved cooking, however she hated it.
  • He loved cooking; however, she hated it.
  • He loved cooking. However, she hated it.
  • She hated cooking, but he loved it.

You may find it helpful to review the standards for commas, periods, semicolons, and other punctuation. You may also find it useful to review transition words/phrases that can help you revise run-on sentences. Below, a few resources are listed in the “Want to Learn More?” section.

Next, let’s keep practicing what you’ve learned so far.

Using Parallelism

Parallelism means that your sentences are balanced. Words, phrases, and clauses must be written in the same way. If you list more than 2 things in a series (which requires commas!!) and you begin with a verb, each thing you list must begin with a verb. If you only list nouns, then each thing you list must only be a noun.

Ex: I am going to go to the store, bank, and by the cleaners.

This is an example of a sentence that is NOT BALANCED. It is simple story that is made very complicated because the parts of the sentence are not parallel. A more complex idea or story conveyed in an unbalanced sentence would be even more illegible to the reader. The following sentences are balanced. They are parallel because they list 3 different nouns or phrases in the same ways.

Ex: I am going to go to the store, the bank, and the cleaners.
OR:
Phrases: I am going by the store, by the bank, and by the cleaners.
OR:
Phrases: I am going to the store to grab some milk, the bank to deposit a check, and the cleaners to pick up my clothes.
OR:
Nouns: I am going by the store, the bank, and the cleaners.
OR:
Nouns: I am going by the store, bank, and cleaners.

Subject-Verb Agreement

Verb Tense

You must always use a verb in every sentence you write. Verbs are parts of speech that indicate actions or states of being. The most basic sentence structure is a subject followed by a verb. Verb tenses tell the reader when the action takes place. The action could be in the past, present, or future.

Past ← Present → Future
Yesterday I jumped. Today I jump. Tomorrow I will jump.

Simple present verbs are used: when the action takes place now, when the action is something that happens regularly, and when describing things that are generally true.

I drink the water greedily.

I always cross my fingers for good luck.

College tuition is very costly.

Simple past verbs are used when the action has already taken place and is now finished:

I washed my uniform last night.
I asked for more pie.
I coughed loudly last night.

Simple future verbs are used when the action has not yet taken place:

I will work late tomorrow.
I will kiss my boyfriend when I see him.
I will erase the board after class.

Irregular Verbs

These are eleven Irregular verbs and their standard forms:

Verb Mood/Tense

Modifiers

Misplaced

During revision, check that modifiers are as close as possible to the thing they are modifying. Misplaced modifiers can be very confusing for readers and obfuscate your meaning.

Example: Stolen from his car, Henry saw his wallet at the pawn shop.

Questions: Was Henry stolen? Was the pawn shop stolen?

Revision:  Henry saw his wallet, which had been stolen from his car, at the pawn shop.

Example: The flowers bloomed when the weather changed in the front yard.

Questions: The weather changed in the front yard only, but no where else?

Revision: The flowers bloomed in the front yard when the weather changed.

Example: The officers quickly wanted to solve the crime.

Questions: Whatdoes it mean to “want quickly”?

Revision: The officers wanted to solve the crime quickly.

Example: Ariana just bought the white house next to the supermarket with the blue trim.

Questions: The supermarket has blue trim?

Revision: Paul just bought the white house with the blue trim next to the supermarket.

Dangling

You also want to make sure that the noun the modifier is supposed to be modifying is actually present in the sentence. This might seem like common sense, but sometimes our hands type faster than our brains process and this happens.

Example: After price-checking for hours, the stereo at Costco was the best deal.

Question: Who or what did the price checking? The acting subject is missing.

Revision: After price checking for hours, I found the best deal on stereos at Costco.

Example: The restaurant was very busy waiting 10 minutes for a table.

Question: The restaurant was waiting?

Revision: The restaurant was very busy, so she waited 30 minutes for a table.

Capitalization

Most of the things we capitalize in English are what we call proper nouns. They are the names of specific, unique people and things. Everything else is a common noun.

The Three Big Capitalization Rules:

1. Specific names: If you are talking about one specific mountain (Mt. Fuji), state (Idaho) or street (Atlantic Ave.) or whatever, use a capital letter for every word in the name.

2. General words. When you talk about mountains, states, or streets in a general way, don’t use a capital letter.

3. Small words. Capitals are not used for articles (a, an, the) or prepositions (of, on, for, in, to, with, etc.).

The Common FAQs about Capitalization:

1. Job Titles: Capitalize only when you address a person by his or her position as though it were part of their name.

a. Correct: Abraham Lincoln was president of the US in 1864.

b. Correct: We discussed President Lincoln in history class today.

2. Regions: When you refer to New England, the Midwest, the Pacific Northwest or the South as an area name, capitalize it. If you mean it as a direction, don’t.

a. Correct: Drive south on Highway 287 for four miles.

b. Correct: I have lived in the South since 2006.

3. Titles: Titles are capitalized, but not every word—just the major ones. Small words like articles (the, a, an) and prepositions (on, under, with) generally do not get capitalized, but there are some exceptions. The first letter of a work of art is always capitalized even if it’s an article, preposition or conjunction.

a. Correct: Of Mice and Men

b. Correct: The Lion King