7 Synthesis
In this chapter, we will practice:
- describing a set of sources that are “in conversation” with one another
- comparing and contrasting two or more sources
- identifying themes in a set of sources and across a conversation
What do we mean by synthesis? Where analysis calls on us to break an artifact down into individual parts, synthesis requires us to make connections between those parts or—in most academic writing—among sources, topics, or events (just to name a few possibilities). A common type of synthesis in academic writing, for example, is a literature review in which the researcher-writer collects, compares, and shows connections or differences among different scholarly sources as well as gaps in the research. With academic writing foremost in mind, Lumen Learning defines synthesis as “analysis across sources,” adding that “what you write in reaction to the work of others should use synthesis to create new meaning or to show a deeper understanding of what you learned.” The idea is not just to summarize but to make connections. That feature is what makes synthesis so important: it’s critical thinking in action.
For example, in a movie review, you might first identify, summarize, and analyze key parts of the film, such as genre, plot, and specific techniques like suspense, background music, or humor. You might also find, summarize, and evaluate other critiques of the film. Synthesis relies on these skills, asking you to point out relationships between film elements, compare other critiques, note what’s missing or unexamined, then draw new, hopefully insightful conclusions of your own. Lumen Learning suggests, “… look for connections and patterns …[and] themes among your sources.” The idea is to connect ideas and show relationships from source to source. sources.” In other words, look for similarities, differences, and gaps. What did other critics or scholars say about a particular topic? On what points do they differ? Where do they agree? What have they missed?
In fact, we synthesize all the time but may not realize we’re gathering, comparing, and evaluating sources in this way. For example, imagine this scenario: You and a group of friends want to attend a movie together but cannot decide which one. Each of you makes a recommendation, summarizing key details about your choices (genre, good reviews, compelling plots, and so forth). Together, you and your friends compare the films, discuss each other’s assessments of the options available, and reach a conclusion: you’ll go see the sci-fi flick! That’s synthesis (or “analysis across sources”). In this case, your friends’ individual analyses are your sources; your discussion and conclusion is the synthesis.
Synthesizing Research
For a more academic project, imagine that you need to gather sources, annotate them, then report what connections, differences, gaps, and other relationships you found. That’s one approach to writing a literature review, a common academic genre that synthesizes available research to position the writer to come to a conclusion or a recommendation on a topic. Here’s synthesis in action—in an academic literature review written in APA style:
The emergence of [open educational resources or OER] goes back to 1985, when the Free Software Foundation was founded by Richard Stallman to support the free software movement and to grant a certain freedom to software users (Caswell et al., 2008). In 1994, the term learning objects was introduced by Wayne Hodgins to refer to digital educational resources that could be shared via the World Wide Web (Wiley, 2006). In 1998, the term open content was coined by David Wiley and introduced to the educational community, specifically to the creators of learning objects. (Wiley, 2006)
Did you notice how the authors summarize each source and relate the sources to one another? Richard Stallman “supported the free software movement.” Wayne Hodgins “introduced” a key concept that was widely shared and evolved into “open content” — the foundational idea for OER. The authors of this paragraph quickly summarize OER history but also show the relationship from one stage to another, and from one person to the next. To arrive at this synthesis, the authors had to gather sources, study them, summarize them, then analyze them before arriving at this brief synthesis.
Remember, it is not enough to just list what each source says in the same paragraph like this:
Example from Scribbr: Lenneberg (1967) theorized that language acquisition could occur only within a critical period of development between infancy and puberty. Johnson and Newport (1988) have researched the capability of young people to learn a second language. Their findings suggest that young learners acquire a second language more easily than older learners. Schepens, van Hout, and van der Slik (2022) have found that age and language dissimilarity play a role in adults’ abilities to acquire a second language.
Synthesis involves interpreting sources, explaining their relationships to each other, identifying themes across them, and applying them to your own research.
Example from Scribbr: Research on the barriers to second language acquisition has primarily focused on age-related difficulties. Building on Lenneberg’s (1967) theory of a critical period of language acquisition, Johnson and Newport (1988) tested Lenneberg’s idea in the context of second language acquisition. Their research seemed to confirm that young learners acquire a second language more easily than older learners. Recent research has considered other potential barriers to language acquisition. Schepens, van Hout, and van der Slik (2022) have revealed that the difficulties of learning a second language at an older age are compounded by dissimilarity between a learner’s first language and the language they aim to acquire. Further research needs to be carried out to determine whether the difficulty faced by adult monoglot speakers is also faced by adults who acquired a second language during the “critical period.”
Here are two tables you can use to do the thinking work that precedes synthesis work.
Practice: Pre-Synthesis Analysis
Step 1: Using this chart, think about each source, what it does, why, and how. Make sure to fill out each box. This will help you.
| Purpose | Main Idea/Conclusions | Supporting Arguments & Evidence | Audience | Style | |
| Source 1 | |||||
| Source 2 | |||||
| Source 3 | |||||
| Source 4 |
Step 2: Look back at what you’ve written and start to identify what your sources have in common. Highlight where you see the same words and phrases. This will help you identify themes your sources have in common and ideas or strategies your sources do not share. Once you’ve identifed a few commonalities, write them in the “theme” boxes below and identify how each source addresses or what each source says about that theme.
| Source 1 | Source 2 | Source 3 | Source 4 | |
| Theme 1 | ||||
| Theme 2 | ||||
| Theme 3 |
Step 3: Use the analysis you’ve done to begin building some sentences about patterns and differences across your sources. The next section includes sample phrases to help you do so.
Helpful Phrases for Writing Synthesis
- Source A asserts that… Source B agrees when he or she states…
- According to both A & B…
- The combined conclusions of sources B & C seem to indicate that…
- While sources offer different evidence, all agree that..
- The evidence shows that…
- Source B is correct that…
- Source C makes a convincing case when she argues…
- I agree with Source A’s conclusion that…
Synthesis that indicates disagreement/conflict:
- Source A asserts that…Yet Source B offers a different perspective by…
- Source C & B would likely disagree regarding…
- While sources A, B, and E agree that… Sources C and D seem to indicate…
- My view, however, contrary to what Source A has argued, is…
- I argue that X & Y are the best solution, though Source B offers a different option.
- In contrast, I would like to offer some objections to the opinions expressed by source C…
- While source A makes an intriguing argument, I would disagree…
(The content in this section is from Melanie Gagich’s book Introduction to Writing in College, which is licensed as CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 and can be accessed here.)
Genre Discussion: Report
What is this genre about? Reports are genres that do research and synthesis. Across disciplines from lab reports to book reports, they are designed inform readers about relevant information that they need to know. The goal of a report is to inform, so writers need to make informative claims about why readers need to know this information and why now. Reports can provide new information on a known subject, provide historical or other relevant context, clear up misconceptions, propose a plan, introduce the audience to something unknown, or develop a profile of a person, place, or object. Most reports are written for a specific audience and purpose, so the writer’s job is to define the purpose for the report to show the reader what information they’ll learn and what next steps need to be taken on a topic.
A report will need to:
- Summarize information about a topic using an objective stance,
- Synthesize research from credible and relevant sources.
- Define the purpose for the report.
- Appeal to a specific audience.
What are the expectations? Readers expect that reports will be more informative than argumentative. To inform the reader, writers need to adopt an objective and appropriate tone for the report to inform the reader. Reports need to be logically organized with a clear structure and connections between the different parts and ideas. When conveying the facts of the report, writers need to make conscientious rhetorical choices and define key terms that provide background information for their audience. Readers expect that reports are written to inform their future actions, so writers need to make sure that readers understand key concepts crucial to the topic. Finally, a report needs to be credible in order for readers to make informed decisions. Rather than only presenting one perspective on a topic, a writer adds credibility to a report by providing various perspectives on the topic to inform the reader and providing evidence from many referenced sources. Writers need to present credible, relevant information in ways that build reader trust through accuracy in citing sources and integrating information as evidence to support the report’s informative claims.
Why does this genre matter? You’ll be asked to write and read reports in all walks of life, including your personal and professional life. You could be asked to write or read reports for a job that requires you to conduct research or work on a project that necessitates sharing results. You could read your child’s progress report from school or marketing reports for your small business. Reports can be formal or informal, including meeting minutes, memoranda, letters, expense reports, progress reports, annual reports, technical reports, journalistic reports, or research reports. In short, this genre matters because you need to learn how to objectively communicate information to an audience for a specific purpose.
What are examples of this genre?
Additional Resources
The following webpages contain more great information and examples for writing synthesis:
Purdue OWL “Synthesizing Sources”
Lumen “Synthesis”
Coleen Warwick “Help! I’ve been asked to synthesize!”
Susan Hagan, at the University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, explains the relationship of summary, analysis, and synthesis. For her video click: “SAS-Summary, Analysis, Synthesis”
Attributions
“Synthesis,” Lumen Learning, CC BY: Attribution, https://courses.lumenlearning.com/englishcomp1/chapter/synthesis/
“Synthesizing What You Read,” Excelsior Online Reading Lab, CC BY: Attribution, https://owl.excelsior.edu/orc/what-to-do-after-reading/synthesizing/.
“Synthesizing Your Research Findings,” Christine Photinos, CC BY: Attribution, https://composingourselvesandourworld.pressbooks.com/chapter/20-2-synthesis/#syn.