The Basics: Terms to Know, Sentence Elements, and Functions

Subject: Usually contains a noun or pronoun and is the topic of the sentence and does an action.

Predicate: This is the action that the subject does.

Independent clause: Contains a subject and predicate and can stand alone as a sentence. ( Ex. I run., He eats., They laugh.)

Dependent (subordinate) clause: Group of words that can’t stand alone as a complete sentence, but is dependent on, or subordinate to, the independent clause. (Ex. Although I run,).

Inverted sentence: When the writer inverts the subject-predicate order and places the action before the subject. (Ex. Never has she felt so beautiful.)

Direct vs. Indirect object: Ex. Sally bakes Joe a cake. The cake receives the action of being baked, which makes it the direct object; however, the cake is baked for Joe, so he is the indirect object.

Prepositional phrase: A word that indicates a relationship from one thing to another. Ex. around, up, under, in, and so on.

Parts of Speech:

Nouns – Persons, places, things, or ideas; function in a sentence as subject, direct object, indirect object, object complement, predicate nominative, object of a preposition, or appositive

Verbs – Actions or states of being; function in a sentence as either an action verb or a linking verb.

Pronouns – Words that take the place of nouns: function in a sentence as subject, direct object, indirect object, object compliment, predicate nominative, object of a preposition, or appositive

Adjectives – Describe nouns

Adverbs – Describe verbs, adjectives, and even other adverbs

Prepositions – Words that signal prepositional phrases and show relationships between words and phrases; function in a sentence as either an adjective or an adverb

Conjunctions – Words that connect other words, phrases, and clauses; coordinating or subordinate.

Sentence constructions follow these basic patterns:

Subject/ verb: The dog ran.

Subject/ linking verb/ subject compliment: The dog is a German Shepard.

Subject /action verb/ direct object: The dog bit the mailman.

Subject/ action verb/ indirect object/ direct object: The dog brought me a stick.

Subject/ action verb/ direct object/ object compliment: The dog made the mailman angry.

The types of sentences:

Declarative: Makes a statement. The dog is sleeping in the corner.

Interrogative: Asks a question. Where is the dog?

Imperative: Gives a command. Come here, dog.

Exclamative: Expresses surprise. Look at that sweet dog!

*Use the four types of sentences to vary sentence length and style, as well as to:

• Avoid monotony.
• Provide rhythm.
• Create cohesion.
• Ensure clarity.
• Convey voice.

Ways to Vary a Sentence:

Avoid Repeating To-be Verbs:

• • Writing is what I enjoy. 🡪 I enjoy writing.
  • Smoking is bad for your health. 🡪 Smoking can cause bad health effects.
    • Strengthens your statement, especially in an argument.

Combine Multiple Simple Sentences:

• • We write. We edit. 🡪 We write, and we edit.
  • He went to the store. He bought apples. 🡪 When he went to the store, he bought apples.
    • Provides a smoother feel and shows relationships between ideas.
    • Avoids a string of short, choppy sentences.

Use the FANBOYS acronym for remembering coordinating conjunctions: For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, and So

• Vary Location of Dependent Clauses and Phrases:
  • When he went to the store, he bought apples.
  • He bought apples when he went to the store.
  • He bought apples when he went to the store, but she bought bananas.

Use subordinating conjunctions for creating dependent clauses: that, which, who, whom, whose, when, where, why, after, although, as, as if, because, since, so that, how, whenever, and so on.

Utilize Transition Words and Phrases:

• • We write; however, we write and write again.
  • Next, we will edit.
    • Provides a smooth flow.
    • Guides the reader through your thought process.

Conjunctive adverbs include: thus, therefore, thereby, consequently, however, additionally, furthermore, nonetheless, moreover, likewise, and so on.

Use Parallel Structure

Sentence elements that are alike in function should also be alike in construction, or parallel. Below are some examples of parallel elements. Notice the patterns in language:

• •       Ex: thinking, running, singing, seeing   (Gerunds: Notice the “-ing” ending verbs)
  •       Ex: to see, to understand, to speak, to stir (Infinitives: The word “to” and then a verb)
  •       Ex: on the street, on the table, on the radio, on the mark  (Prepositions: The words “on the” and a noun)
  •       Ex: who you are, what you are doing, why you are here (Clauses: The five Ws and how)

There are five rules on correct parallel usage:

1.     Coordinating conjunctions: With coordinating conjunctions or FANBOYS.

(FANBOYS: For, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so)

• • Ex: She likes to look but not to listen.
  • Ex: I do not enjoy running or dieting.

2.     Lists: In a list of three or more items.

• • Ex: There wasn’t any opportunity to do my taxes, to request an extension, or to explain my situation.
  • Ex:  The company doesn’t care about who you are, how you got there, or why you have come.

3.     Comparisons: We often use such as, more, less, better, and worse and link them to words like as and than, but this not always the case.

• • Ex: Driving to New York can take more time than flying there.
  • Ex: How you live your life is just as important as how happy you are.

4.     Infinitives and being: Use parallel structure with elements joined by a linking verb or verb of being.

• • Ex: Being Jim’s friend means being a fan of reggae music.
  • Ex: To know her is to love her.

5.     Correlative conjunctions. Correlative conjunction must be used in pairs: Either/or, neither/nor, both/and, and not only/but also.

• • Ex:  We were told to either reduce the staff or find new customers.
  • Ex: Angela was neither going to classes nor planning on graduating.
  • Ex: I would like to buy both a new house and a new car.

Attributions

“Haley the Noble Dog” image by Kathy Quesenbury

“Winnie with the Flying Ears” image by Monica Prochnow

Diction:  An author’s choice of words, phrases, or sentences. Diction can be formal or informal depending on the needs of the document and expectations of the audience. Diction, therefore, concerns itself with emotional and cultural values of words and their ability to affect meaning.

Consider the word laugh. We all know what it means to laugh, but instead of merely writing laugh in a sentence, a clever writer may consider using alternative words and take advantage of the effects they create. Ponder the words giggle, cackle, and chuckle, all of which also mean to laugh, but note how they create distinctly different meanings within the same sentence.

Examples:

• The old lady’s giggle echoed throughout the quiet house. (silly, fun-filled, childlike, perhaps a bit naughty)
• The old lady’s cackle echoed throughout the quiet house. (scary, witch-like, intending evil)
• The old lady’s chuckle echoed throughout the quiet house. (explosive, sudden, loud sound)

Think how a simple word variation can not only change the meaning of a sentence, but it can establish an overall mood to the work itself.

Diction choices can include the use of:

1. Slang. Recently coined words used informally. Ex: yeet, fleek,
2. Colloquial expressions. Regional sayings like “y’all” and “you guys” that are informal.
3. Jargon. Words or expressions that pertain to a particular profession or activity.
4. Dialect. A nonstandard language style with its own vocabulary and grammar patterns, usually using words that reveal a person’s social class, economic level, or ethnicity.
5. Concrete diction: Words that describe physical qualities or conditions.
   

   

6. Abstract diction: Words that describe ideas, emotions, conditions, or concepts that cannot be touched.
7. Denotation: The exact, dictionary definition of a word, free of secondary definitions or emotion. Ex: That car is jacked up. (Translation = Someone slid a jack under the car and hoisted it up.)
8. Connotation: The social meaning of a word, containing suggestions, emotional overtones, or other associations. Ex:  The car is jacked up. (Translation = That car is messed up!)
9. Euphemism: A nice way of saying something too ugly to utter. Ex: dead = passed away
10. Synecdoche: A part of something used to refer to the whole of it. Ex: Nice wheels!  (Wheels are a part of a car, but really, you’re referring to the whole car.)
11. Metonymy: When a word/phrase refers to something related but doesn’t have to deal with any part of anything. Ex: Jana has a nice ride! (Here, a “ride” really means a car.)

Figurative Language: the use of words that dress up the message. Sometimes the words show comparisons, similarities, relationships, or the treatment of an object as being human-like. Whatever the tactic the author uses, it is meant to make the reader connect to the characters/events through lively description in a deeper way than if the author just said something plainly.

• Ex: “A single second, as big as a zeppelin, floated by.”  -“Greasy Lake” by TC Boyle

Explanation: The author simply could have said that time seemed to have stood still at that precise moment, but he didn’t. Instead, he used a simile to tell the same idea but to create a more intense effect. The result, of course, is much more powerful.

Below are common types of figurative language.

1. Similes. Comparing two different things using “like” or “as”
2. Metaphors. Comparing two different things not using “like” or “as”
3. Hyperbole. A severe exaggeration. “It’s a thousand degrees outside!”
4. Apostrophe. Directly addressing a person, thing, or abstraction, such as “O Western Wind,” or “Ah, Sorrow…” and is sometimes seen in religious texts or odes.
5. Onomatopoeia. A word whose sounds duplicate the sounds they describe. Ex: hiss, buzz, bang, murmur, meow, growl.
6. Oxymoron. A phrase with contradictory parts. Ex: jumbo shrimp, Biggie Smalls, a cold sweat, pretty ugly.
7. Paradox. Concepts or ideas that are contradictory to one another, yet, when placed together hold significant value on several levels. Ex: Here’s some advice: Never take my advice!
8. Kenning. A newly created compound sentence or phrase to refer to a person, object, place, action or idea. Ex: Battle-sweat = blood, Sky-candle = sun, Whale-road = ocean
9. Metonymy. The name of one thing for that of another of which it is associated. A crown (royal object) rests on his crown (part of a person’s head).
10. Synecdoche. A part of something to refer to the whole. Ex: Get your butt in here! (Really, all of you.)
11. Litotes. A discreet way of saying something unpleasant without directly using negativity. Ex: Not the brightest bulb (not very smart)
12. Understatement: An ironic understatement meant to downplay a situation and make it seem less than what it really is. Ex: “He’s not the sharpest tool in the shed.” (Translation: He isn’t smart.)

The Thesaurus: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly

The Good — Student writers are, by all means, encouraged to use a thesaurus. It is a helpful tool to use when you are:

1. feeling repetitive in your word choices and need to find an alternative word
2. when you know what you want to say but cannot quite figure out the right term to use

The Bad — A thesaurus is not, however, an appropriate tool to use:

• Spice up an essay to make you sound sophisticated; this is the wrong way to go about it. Focus, instead, on digging deep into the details your ideas and adding complexity to your ideas. The language should reflect the sophistication of the ideas, not override them.

The Ugly – Students will sometimes select words that they are unfamiliar with, and as a result, the wrong word can make the writing unclear and the overall message diluted.

The Wrong Way with the Wrong Word:

The most common writing mistake, according to Stanford University, that a student writer makes is choosing the wrong word. These mistakes can sometimes stem from simple misspelling issues (like confusing “from” and “form”) to larger problems like selecting the wrong word altogether (allusion vs. illusion). The wrong word choice can create confusion and cost a student writer some valuable points on his or her grade.

Use this link to  Stanford University Grammar Resources so that you can review the list of commonly confused words to ensure you are choosing the right ones in your own writing.