20 Grammar
Grammar is how words and other communicative symbols are traditionally, and meaningfully, arranged. Most people think of grammar as a “set of rules,” but grammar is actually a set of norms—a way particular groups of people agree to arrange their written language so that others within the group can understand them. Grammar, like language, shifts across time and space. Its norms depend on the communities using it.
There is no such thing as “good” or “bad” grammar. There is, instead, grammar that is recognizable and/or acceptable to particular groups of people in particular spaces and grammar that is not recognizable and/or acceptable to particular groups of people in particular spaces. For example, we all use punctuation very differently in texts to our friends compared to essays we might write for our “Introduction to Psychology” class. Being able to recognize and deploy different grammar styles when you need them is the key to developing your own voice across different genres and for different communities.
Punctuation Glossary
Basic Sentence Structure
A complete sentence has a complete idea or thought, meaning it 1) identifies a subject and 2) tells the reader a thing the subject did or something the subject is. Complete sentences are also called independent clauses, meaning they can stand on their own.
Ex. Jack and Jill ran up the hill.
Ex. Frodo’s fate is no longer in our hands.
An incomplete sentence is missing a subject or verb or is not a complete thought or idea. Incomplete sentences are also called dependent clauses, meaning they cannot stand alone, or sentence fragments.
Ex. The boy who lived
Ex. Ring around the roses, pockets full of posies.
Norms for Combining Clauses
Independent + Comma + coordinating + Independent
Ex. The cat sprayed the inflatable snowman, so blow-up Frosty tumbled on the feline.
Ex. Natalee is very eager to try new sports this schoolyear, and she has plans to maintain straight A’s as well.
Independent + semicolon + transition word + comma +Independent
Ex. Alfred and Monique are always bickering about mundane matters; for example, they spent 35 minutes arguing about where to eat last night.
Ex. The house we just looked at is the biggest of them all; however, there was no garage or pool.
Independent + semicolon + Independent
Ex. The assignments in my anatomy class are interesting but complicated; the project I turned in yesterday took me nearly three weeks to finish.
Ex. Everyone knows how difficult it is to be a full-time student with a full-time job; the amount of time can easily demand 30 hours per week for each.
Dependent (leads with a subordinating) + comma + Independent (dependent lead also known as an introductory clause)
Ex. In a hole in the ground, there lived a hobbit.
Ex. As the dog ran away from his owner, he trampled through the neighbor’s flower bed causing huge mess.
Independent + Dependent (leads with a subordinating)
Ex. The students were eager to return to school because there were only two weeks left in the semester.
Ex. The class was not ready to review previous lessons when the school day began.
Creating Sentence Variation
Combining sentences can be tricky. Use the above review as a guide.
Simple sentences-1 independent clause (a subject, a verb, a complete thought)
Ex: I caught a big fish.
James really likes strawberry ice cream.
Angie and Fred have been dating for 3 months.
Compound Sentences-2 or more independent clauses joined together using a COORDINATING CONJUNCTION (FANBOYS-see the above review) and the correct punctuation.
Form compound sentences by combining 2 or more simple sentences.
Ex: I caught a big fish, but I threw it back into the lake.
James really likes strawberry ice cream, yet he ordered a gigantic banana split at Braum’s tonight.
Angie and Fred have been dating for 3 months; therefore, he decided it was time to finally introduce her to his friends.
Complex Sentences-these have at least 1 dependent and 1 independent clause. Remember that dependent clauses start with SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS or RELATIVE PRONOUNS!
Ex: George has a huge belly.
George eats way too much junk food.
*Because George eats way too much junk food, he has a huge belly.
Alex had an awful car accident.
Alex bought a brand-new silver Honda Accord.
* After she had an awful car accident, Alex bought a brand-new silver Honda Accord.
Compound Complex Sentences-these have at least 2 independent clauses and at least 1 dependent clause.
Ex: Sasha’s make-up tutorials recently went viral on Instagram.
She is now one of the most popular Insta Influencers.
Her top tutorial videos have over a million views.
* Sasha’s make-up tutorials recently went viral on Instagram; since her top tutorial videos have over a million views, she is now one of the most popular Insta Influencers.
To make your sentences even more varied, do the following:
- Use introductory words and phrases
- Move sentence parts
- Vary sentence types
Using or Avoiding Sentence Fragments
A sentence fragment is a phrase that cannot stand on its own.
For example, the fragment lacks a key element, such as a subject, an appropriate verb, or any context that would “complete” the thought.
One type of sentence fragment begins with a word that signals belonging with—or depending upon—another phrase; these fragment types are subordinate or dependent clauses. Words that signal a dependent clause include:
- for, as, since, therefore, hence, consequently, though, due to, provided that, because, unless, once, while, when, whenever, where, wherever, before, after
- that, which, who, whom, whichever, whoever, whomever, whose.
Got it? Here are a few examples of different types of sentence fragments:
- Six a.m.: the first day of class.
- My aunt saying, “No corran, don’t run.”
- Which makes these stories, rife as they are with darkness, violence, and suffering, both psychologically realistic and viscerally thrilling.
- That the speaking profits me, beyond any other effect.
All of these examples come from published works in which the writer intended to compose a sentence fragment: Azar Nafisi’s memoir about teaching banned books in Iran, Gloria Anzaldúa’s essay about the lived history of borderlands in Texas, Judy Berman’s March 29, 2023, Time magazine essay about popular television shows that feature powerful women, and Audre Lorde’s 1977 essay about transforming silence into action. We’ll read the full passages later in this lesson, but first, let’s practice what we’ve learned so far.
Practice: Sentence Fragments I
Taken out of context, each of the examples above is a sentence fragment. Can you explain what’s missing in each example? Does the phrase have a subject? Does it have a verb, or is the verb not in the right form for the intended meaning or in the expected format?
Feel free to review our resources about sentence fragments (see below). But also feel free to apply what you know about grammar, or how you can tell something may be missing or misapplied.
- Go through the list of examples and briefly explain what’s missing or misapplied and why these phrases are sentence fragments.
- Next, play with the phrases. Can you turn each of them into a complete sentence that has a clear subject and a verb?
Are fragments okay sometimes?
In everyday speech, in creative writing, and in informal communications, we use sentence fragments all the time. Here’s a short dialogue that includes a sentence fragment:
- Question: Where are you going?
- Answer: To the library.
The answer is a sentence fragment, but we understand the meaning because it’s part of the conversation. We understand it because we understand the context. (By the way, how often or in what situations would you answer such questions in the complete sentence, “I am going to the library”?)
Let’s reconsider our initial sentence fragments. Despite being grammatically incomplete, each of our three examples is understood when read in the context of the story or article.
Here are excerpts from which the sample fragments were taken. (Want to read more? See the Works Cited section for information about the full texts of each excerpt.)
In the fields, la migra. My aunt saying, “No corran, don’t run. They’ll think you’re del otro lao.” In the confusion, Pedro ran, terrified of being caught. He couldn’t speak English, couldn’t tell them he was fifth generation American. Sin papeles—he did not carry his birth certificate to work in the fields. (Anzaldúa 26)
Not that Yellowjackets and its ilk are utopian counterparts to the patriarchal dystopia of The Handmaid’s Tale. They harbor no illusions that all girls are inherently peaceful or kind or perfect. Which makes these stories, rife as they are with darkness, violence, and suffering, both psychologically realistic and viscerally thrilling. Yet they also embody a women’s movement, weary from so many fallen idols and so much lost ground, in the midst of an existential crisis. (Berman)
Six a.m.: the first day of class. I was already up. Too excited to eat breakfast, I put the coffee on and then took a long, leisurely shower. … For the first time in many years, … I would not need to go through the tortuous rituals that had marked my days when I taught at the university—rituals governing what I was forced to wear, how I was expected to act, the gestures I had to remember to control. For this class, I would prepare differently. (Nafisi 9)
I have come to believe over and over again that what is most important to me must be spoken, made verbal and shared, even at the risk of having it bruised or misunderstood. That the speaking profits me, beyond any other effect. I am standing here as a Black lesbian poet, and the meaning of all that waits upon the fact that I am still alive, and might not have been. Less than two months ago I was told by two doctors, one female and one male, that I would have to have breast surgery, and that there was a 60 to 80 percent chance that the tumor was malignant. (Lorde 40).
When should I avoid fragments?
In professional, academic, and other formal contexts, sentence fragments are considered incorrect or inappropriate to the rhetorical situation. For example, in a formal letter that’s part of a job application, these opening lines could cost the writer a chance at the position:
Dear Mrs. Janeway,
Please accept my application. For the copy editor position. Because I would be really good at it. Really.
As discussed in the previous section, sometimes we use sentence fragments as a way to emphasize a point, draw attention to a detail, introduce a conversational tone in our writing, and other rhetorical purposes. But the above letter does not work this way or for that purpose. For a copy-editor position, the writer would be expected to punctuate the opening phrases in one coherent sentence, perhaps this way:
Please accept my application for the copy editor position, because I would be really good at it.
That’s a complete sentence. Of course, it may not be the most effective sentence, because the writer may be misreading the situation. In a formal application letter, in other words, we expect a detailed list of qualifications or a formal statement, rather than the casual “because I would be really good at it” and the extra “really.” What do you think would be a better concluding phrase for the sentence?
Practice: Sentence Fragments II
In the following paragraph, we have introduced sentence fragments into a published narrative. Try to…
- Identify each fragment.
- Explain why it’s a sentence fragment.
“Growing up. I had an average, simple family. I had an older sister. Who I got along with. An intelligent father who spent most days working, and a decent mother who took care of me when my father was gone. My mother Susan was a realtor and always had been throughout my life. I never saw any issues with the job. Until it started getting slow during the winter of 2016. It had been months, and my mother still hadn’t sold any houses. This lack of job success took a toll on her, and she began to act differently. I didn’t understand it then, but she fell into a despondent state of depression. As one does when depressed. She turned to drinking.
How can I fix fragments?
Now that you have a better idea what sentence fragments are and what rhetorical situations allow or discourage them, how can you fix them when you find them?
Remember: In informal situations and for some written works, fragments are okay. They suit the rhetorical situation, such as a conversation, an informal communication, or a special purpose. You might use a fragment in your narrative or story, especially if you’re speaking. However, in most formal, academic, and professional writing, sentence fragments are viewed as mistakes or as rhetorically inappropriate.
Here are a few examples of fragments and a possible fix for each one. Sometimes the fix is as simple as replacing a period with a comma, so that the fragment is joined with the sentence it adds information to. Sometimes, the fix means adding a subject or verb. Sometimes, the fix means changing the verb to a more conventional or grammatical form. Sometimes, playing with the order of phrases or adding context can fix the problem.
- If I can find my phone. We can go.
- If I can find my phone, we can go.
- If I can find my phone, then we can go.
- She said we can go. If I finish my homework..
- She said we can go if I finish my homework.
- If I finish my homework, she said, we can go.
- Grandfather saying, “Let’s go.”
- Grandfather said, “Let’s go.”
- Grandfather says, “Let’s go.”
- I heard my grandfather saying, “Let’s go.”
- I need to my find my phone. Because my wallet is with it.
- I need to find my phone, because my wallet is with it.
- My wallet is with my phone, which I need to find.
Practice: Sentence Fragments III
Now it’s your turn. Each of the following contains a sentence fragment. Turn them into complete sentences. For some of these, you’ll need to be creative by adding a subject or verb or other element that completes the fragment.
- I had already lost hope. That there was going to be a solution for myself.
- 10 a.m. that day.
- I was still exhausted from dumping everything out, but I couldn’t help but feel grateful. Because I had finally released everything.
- One Wednesday night in February of 2021. I sat silent in a group discussion. At church.
- Saying, “Let’s find it together.”
- She would fall asleep behind the steering wheel while driving. Because she was high.
- Clothes all over the floor.
- I went to bed. Since I was tired.
- Because I couldn’t find my phone.
- Nope. Not going to happen.
Helpful Resources: Fragments
- Tarrant County College’s Fragments: How to Correct Incomplete Sentences
- Purdue OWL’s Sentence Fragments
- Grammarly’s “What is a Subordinate Clause?”
Using or Avoiding Run-On Sentences
A run-on sentence is one in which two or more independent phrases are incorrectly or inadequately combined. That is, the phrases run together, lacking punctuation or transition words — or mis-punctuating these elements. As a result, intended meanings often get lost. Here are a few examples of different types of run-on sentences:
- I went to school, I came home.
- The bus stopped on Elm Street I missed it.
- He loved going to school, however his sister hated going to school.
- He went to school and she went to work and they came home later.
These examples represent common types of run-on sentences, including a comma-splice (1), a fused sentence (2), a hybrid of both fusion and splicing (3), and a polysyndeton that strings together several sentences joined only by conjunctions, with no punctuation (4).
That’s a lot to think about, isn’t it? Fortunately, the type of run-on sentence is less important than being able to recognize one and fix the problem. With that in mind, check out the short video in the Recap section, then let’s practice finding run-ons. For a short review of run-ons and comma splices, watch this Khan Academy video, which runs less than 5 minutes: https://youtu.be/Fh45mhVsZrU.
Are run-on sentences wrong?
In a face-to-face conversation, we don’t need punctuation markers to help our audience understand our meaning—unless you’re Dr. Evil using air-quotes in the Austin Powers movie (the Know Your Memes archive shares a few GIFs of Dr. Evil).
Memes aside, in written communications, we rely on a set of grammar and punctuation rules that help our readers understand us when we are not in a face-to-face interaction with them (or watching a video or listening to a podcast). Periods, commas, semi-colons, em dashes (i.e., a long hyphen), question marks, exclamation points, and colons all help us make sense of the strings of words we call sentences, paragraphs, essays, and more. Without such clues, run-on sentences interfere with how our readers interpret a text.
We could describe the run-ons as demonstrating “bad grammar” or “faulty mechanics” or “sloppy punctuation.” But it may be more useful to think of them as ineffective because they muddle our meaning. It’s also more useful to learn how to recognize them in our written communications, identify the underlying problem, and try a more effective approach. Let’s give it a try.
Practice: Run-On Sentences I
In the following paragraphs, there is at least one run-on sentence. Try to:
- Identify each run-on sentence.
- Explain why it’s a run-on sentence.
- Explain how it may confuse the audience or affect the meaning.
- Starting in 1999, financing groups began long-term plans to attempt to gain enough funding to renovate the Baker Hotel but it wasn’t until a couple decades later, in 2019, that a $65 million project officially started as “the largest historical renovation of a building in Texas.” Lawrence goes on to explain that the renovation was only possible due to the architectural brilliance of the foundation and framing of the building. The project manager for the Baker Hotel renovation, Mark Rawlings, marvels over the craftsmanship of the time and he remarks how challenging it is to match it (Waugh 2021).
- The commercial uses an aural mode of communication through music and small amounts of dialogue for instance throughout the commercial a piano soundtrack is utilized, which contributes to the overall feel and mood of the piece music can be perceived as either happy or sad but it is clear that the music in the commercial is meant to create a sad and sentimental feeling in viewers the music used is probably written in a minor mode which portrays sadness the music also has a slower tempo which also contributes to the viewer’s identifying the music as somber and heavy-hearted.
- Every two years, people around the world get excited about the Olympics, a worldwide sporting event that brings together many nations and athletes beyond the display, the Olympics reveal a hidden layer of imperialism still defining global power and communication structures. No one sees the preparation that takes place before the Olympics in residential areas that causes mass displacement. No one sees the thought that goes into every display element to fit with a country’s preferred image. No one sees the fight for power among nations for which the Olympics becomes a platform. People only see what is displayed and broadcasted, however the Olympic games are a cultural phenomenon used to disguise and further imperialist efforts (Ball 2021).
How do I fix run-on sentences?
Let’s compare a few run-ons with revisions that apply standard punctuation and help clarify what we mean to say. Notice that most of the examples can be fixed in more than one way, depending on what you want to communicate and how you want to communicate it.
- I went to school, I came home.
- I went to school. I came home.
- I went to school; I came home.
- I went to school, then I came home.
- The bus stopped on Elm Street I missed it.
- The bus stopped on Elm Street, but I missed it.
- The bus stopped on Elm Street, and I missed it.
- The bus stopped on Elm Street. I missed it!
- He loved cooking, however she hated it.
- He loved cooking; however, she hated it.
- He loved cooking. However, she hated it.
- She hated cooking, but he loved it.
You may find it helpful to review the standards for commas, periods, semicolons, and other punctuation. You may also find it useful to review transition words/phrases that can help you revise run-on sentences. Below, a few resources are listed in the “Want to Learn More?” section.
Next, let’s keep practicing what you’ve learned so far.
Practice: Run-On Sentences II
Revise the run-ons to fix a problem or clarify the meaning.
- According to Nelson Media Research, the average American family watches about 8.2 hours of television per day that’s a lot of time watching moving images. (Giannetti 2008)
- The long shot is perhaps the most complex in the cinema and the term itself is one of the most imprecise. (Ginnetti)
- When the papa found out he began to shout and he started the investigation. (Simon 1971).
- Updates sometimes have nice new features but it’s the bug fixes and security updates that are the most important. (Loyola 2023)
Helpful Resources
- “Run-On Sentences,” by Lumen Learning
- Khan Academy’s 5-minute video about run-on sentences
- Text: Run-on Sentences (by LibreTexts)
Using Parallelism
Parallelism means that your sentences are balanced. Words, phrases, and clauses must be written in the same way. If you list more than 2 things in a series (which requires commas!!) and you begin with a verb, each thing you list must begin with a verb. If you only list nouns, then each thing you list must only be a noun.
Ex: I am going to go to the store, bank, and by the cleaners.
This is an example of a sentence that is NOT BALANCED. It is simple story that is made very complicated because the parts of the sentence are not parallel. A more complex idea or story conveyed in an unbalanced sentence would be even more illegible to the reader. The following sentences are balanced. They are parallel because they list 3 different nouns or phrases in the same ways.
Ex: I am going to go to the store, the bank, and the cleaners.
OR:
Phrases: I am going by the store, by the bank, and by the cleaners.
OR:
Phrases: I am going to the store to grab some milk, the bank to deposit a check, and the cleaners to pick up my clothes.
OR:
Nouns: I am going by the store, the bank, and the cleaners.
OR:
Nouns: I am going by the store, bank, and cleaners.
Subject-Verb Agreement
| Norm | Example | |
| A verb agrees with its subject in number. | The car stays in the garage.
The flowers smell nice. |
|
| The number of the subject (singular or plural) is not changed by words that come between the subject and the verb. | One of the eggs is broken. | |
| Some subjects always take a singular verb even though the meaning may seem plural: each, someone, either, anyone, neither, nobody, one, somebody, no one, anybody, everyone, everybody | Someone in the game was hurt.
Neither of the men is working. |
|
| The following words may be singular or plural, depending upon their use in a sentence: some, any, all, most.
|
Most of the news is good. (singular)
Most of the flowers were yellow. (plural) All of the pizza was gone. (singular) All of the children were late. (plural) |
|
| Subjects joined by and are plural. Subjects joined by or or nor take a verb that agrees with the last subject. | Bob and George are leaving.
Neither Bob nor George is leaving. Neither Bob nor his friends are leaving. |
|
| There and here are never subjects. In sentences that begin with these words, the subject is usually found later on in the sentence. | There were five books on the shelf. (were, agrees with the subject book)
Here is the report you wanted. (Is agrees with subject report) |
|
| Collective nouns may be singular or plural, depending on their use in the sentence. A collective noun is a noun used to name a whole group. | The orchestra is playing a hit song. (Orchestra is considered as one unit—singular.)
The orchestra were asked to give their musical backgrounds. (Orchestra is considered as separate individuals—plural) |
|
| Expressions of time, money, measurement, and weight are usually singular when the amount is considered one unit.
On occasion, however, these terms are used in the plural sense: |
Five dollars is (not are) too much to ask.
Ten days is (not are) not nearly enough time. There were thirty minutes to countdown. |
|
| Some nouns, while plural in form, are actually singular in meaning. | Mathematics is (not are) an easy subject for some people.
Physics is (not are) taught by Prof, Baldwin. |
Verb Tense
You must always use a verb in every sentence you write. Verbs are parts of speech that indicate actions or states of being. The most basic sentence structure is a subject followed by a verb. Verb tenses tell the reader when the action takes place. The action could be in the past, present, or future.
Past ← Present → Future
Yesterday I jumped. Today I jump. Tomorrow I will jump.
Simple present verbs are used: when the action takes place now, when the action is something that happens regularly, and when describing things that are generally true.
I drink the water greedily.
I always cross my fingers for good luck.
College tuition is very costly.
Simple past verbs are used when the action has already taken place and is now finished:
I washed my uniform last night.
I asked for more pie.
I coughed loudly last night.
Simple future verbs are used when the action has not yet taken place:
I will work late tomorrow.
I will kiss my boyfriend when I see him.
I will erase the board after class.
Irregular Verbs
These are eleven Irregular verbs and their standard forms:
| Present Tense | Past Tense | Future Tense | Present Perfect | Past Perfect | |
| To Be | am, is, are | was, were | will be | has/have been | had been |
| To Break | break/breaks | broke | will break | has/have broken | had broken |
| To Come | come/comes | came | will come | has/have come | had come |
| To Do | Do/does | Did | Will do | Has/have done | Had done |
| T o Drive | Drive/drives | Drove | Will drive | Has/have driven | Had driven |
| To Eat | Eat/eats | Ate | Will eat | Has/have eaten | Had eaten |
| To Go | Go/goes | Went | Will go | Has/have gone | Had gone |
| To have | Have/has | Had | Will have | Has/have had | Had had |
| To see | See/sees | Saw | Will see | Has/have seen | Had seen |
| To take | Take/takes | Took | Will take | Has/have taken | Had taken |
| To write | Write/writes | Wrote | Will write | Has/have written | Had written |
Verb Mood/Tense
| Past Tenses
(Before Now) |
Present Tenses
(Now) |
Future Tenses
(After Now) |
|
| Simple
Moods |
Simple Past Tense
Regular (verb + or D) verbs
I walked. He cared.
They left. We ate. |
Simple Present Tense
(VERB) or (VERB+S)
He walks. They leave. |
Simple Future Tense
Will + (VERB)
You will walk. She will leave. |
| Progressive
Moods |
Progressive Past Tense
WAS or WERE + (VERB+ING)
She was walking. They were leaving. |
Progressive Present Tense
AM or IS or ARE + (VERB + ING)
I am walking. He is leaving. You are eating. |
Progressive Future Tense
WILL + BE + (VERB+ING)
We will be walking. You will be leaving. |
| Perfect Moods | Past Perfect Tense
A. Regular HAD+(VERB+ed)
We had walked. They had cared.
B. Irregular HAD + past participle
He had left. You had eaten. |
Present Perfect Tense
A. HAVE + VERB+ed
You have walked. She has cared.
B. HAVE+past participle
We have left. He has eaten. |
Future Perfect Tense
A. Regular WILL+HAVE+VERB+ or D) verbs
He will have walked. I will have cared.
B. Irregular verbs WILL+HAVE+past participle
We will have left. You will have eaten. |
Modifiers
Misplaced
During revision, check that modifiers are as close as possible to the thing they are modifying. Misplaced modifiers can be very confusing for readers and obfuscate your meaning.
Example: Stolen from his car, Henry saw his wallet at the pawn shop.
Questions: Was Henry stolen? Was the pawn shop stolen?
Revision: Henry saw his wallet, which had been stolen from his car, at the pawn shop.
Example: The flowers bloomed when the weather changed in the front yard.
Questions: The weather changed in the front yard only, but no where else?
Revision: The flowers bloomed in the front yard when the weather changed.
Example: The officers quickly wanted to solve the crime.
Questions: Whatdoes it mean to “want quickly”?
Revision: The officers wanted to solve the crime quickly.
Example: Ariana just bought the white house next to the supermarket with the blue trim.
Questions: The supermarket has blue trim?
Revision: Paul just bought the white house with the blue trim next to the supermarket.
Dangling
You also want to make sure that the noun the modifier is supposed to be modifying is actually present in the sentence. This might seem like common sense, but sometimes our hands type faster than our brains process and this happens.
Example: After price-checking for hours, the stereo at Costco was the best deal.
Question: Who or what did the price checking? The acting subject is missing.
Revision: After price checking for hours, I found the best deal on stereos at Costco.
Example: The restaurant was very busy waiting 10 minutes for a table.
Question: The restaurant was waiting?
Revision: The restaurant was very busy, so she waited 30 minutes for a table.
Capitalization
Most of the things we capitalize in English are what we call proper nouns. They are the names of specific, unique people and things. Everything else is a common noun.
The Three Big Capitalization Rules:
1. Specific names: If you are talking about one specific mountain (Mt. Fuji), state (Idaho) or street (Atlantic Ave.) or whatever, use a capital letter for every word in the name.
2. General words. When you talk about mountains, states, or streets in a general way, don’t use a capital letter.
3. Small words. Capitals are not used for articles (a, an, the) or prepositions (of, on, for, in, to, with, etc.).
The Common FAQs about Capitalization:
1. Job Titles: Capitalize only when you address a person by his or her position as though it were part of their name.
a. Correct: Abraham Lincoln was president of the US in 1864.
b. Correct: We discussed President Lincoln in history class today.
2. Regions: When you refer to New England, the Midwest, the Pacific Northwest or the South as an area name, capitalize it. If you mean it as a direction, don’t.
a. Correct: Drive south on Highway 287 for four miles.
b. Correct: I have lived in the South since 2006.
3. Titles: Titles are capitalized, but not every word—just the major ones. Small words like articles (the, a, an) and prepositions (on, under, with) generally do not get capitalized, but there are some exceptions. The first letter of a work of art is always capitalized even if it’s an article, preposition or conjunction.
a. Correct: Of Mice and Men
b. Correct: The Lion King
Apostrophes are used in contractions where the letters have been left out.
Ex. Do not/ don’t
Ex. Is not/ isn’t
Ex. You have/ you’ve
Ex. She would/ she’d
Apostrophes are also used to show possession.
Singular Possessive Example: One woman's hat
Singular Possessive Example: Ms. Chang's house
Singular Possessive Example: Driver's side
Plural Possessive Example: Children's' money
Plural Possessive Example: Diplomats' cars
Plural Possessive Example: Joyce and Greg's computer
Notes on Apostrophes
Omit the apostrophe when writing plural numbers and abbreviations
Ex. Figure 8s
Ex. The 1900s
Ex. Four IOUs
Do not use an apostrophe with possessive pronouns.
Ex. His, hers, its, theirs, ours, yours, whose
The only time an apostrophe is used with “its” is when it is the contraction for it is.
Ex. It’s a nice day.
Commas are super complicated, but here are the basics:
Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction that separates two independent clauses.
Ex. The child agreed, but the parent objected.
Ex. Time flies when we are having fun, and we are always having fun.
Use a comma after introductory words, phrases, or clauses.
Ex. Yes, I do need that report.
Ex. To apply for this job, you must have previous experience.
Use commas to set off elements that interrupt or add information in a sentence.
Ex. I am, as you have probably noticed, very nervous about this.
Ex. Mary, who has a three children, cannot go this Saturday.
Use commas to clarify lists of words or clauses
Ex. We will need hammers, nails, and a saw.
Ex. Yesterday, I went to the store, picked up a cake, drove to my grandmother's house, and sang "Happy Birthday" to her.
Use commas to surround the name or title of a person directly addressed.
Ex. Alisha, will you help me plan this party?
Ex. Yes, Sarah, I will.
Use commas for complete dates and NOT for incomplete dates
Ex. December 10, 2022
Ex. December 2022
Use commas to break up numbers into thousands
Ex. 1, 304, 394
Use commas to connect quotes or dialogue to the rest of the sentence.
Ex. "We are leaving tomorrow," my dad said.
Ex. According to William Shakespeare, "All the world's a stage."
Before a long list or explanation:
Ex. The state fair offers a significant amount of disgusting food: fried pizza, fried Twinkies, fried butter, fried Oreos, fried Cheerios, fried beer, fried Dr. Pepper, fried queso, fried pig ears, and fried bubble gum.
A formal way to introduce a quote:
Ex. Professor J. D. Jasper, leading expert on pet therapy, argues: "Volunteering at a local animal shelter should be a requirement for graduation."
To omit words in a quote or for drama or to leave your audience wondering...
Ex: “Michael . . . rarely knows his schedule.”
Ex. The streets were deserted and the doors bolted. . . . Nathan was the only living soul left in the town. The zombie apocalypse had inevitably reached small town Midlothian, Texas.
Use with interjections to show emotion, i. e., angry, excited, scared, surprised.
Ex. Wow! I love that!
Use when asking a question.
Ex. “Whaaaat?”
Use quotation marks when someone is thinking or talking or for direct quotes from another source.
Ex. And I think to myself, "What a wonderful world."
Use parentheses to enclose words or numbers that clarify or are used as an aside. Parenthesis signal a statement is less important than the rest of the statements around it.
Ex. I expect six hundred dollars ($600).
Ex. He finally answered (after taking five minutes to think about it) that he did not understand the question.
Periods go inside the parentheses only if an entire sentence is enclosed.
Ex. Please read the analysis (I enclosed it as attachment A.)
Ex. Please read the analysis (attachment A).
Use a period to mark the end of a sentence.
Ex. All dogs go to heaven.
Use a period after Mr., Mrs., Ms., or Dr.
Ex. Dr. Wordsmith is an excellent writer.
Use a period for abbreviations.
Ex. 15 Feb. 2022
Ex. U.S.A.
Use a semicolon to separate independent clauses
Ex. Dogs rule; cats drool.
To divide a list with modifiers
Ex. Dogs come in all shapes and sizes, such as basset hounds with long ears and droopy eyes; chows with black tongues and fluffy coats; corgis with short legs and pointy noses; and labradors with round ears and unpredictable tails.