This chapter on argumentation discusses what is meant by “argumentation” and provides methods and examples for writing an argument of your own. Overall, a well-written argument essay establishes a claim that is supported by researched evidence and thoughtful commentary.

In composition, argumentation does not mean being aggressive or hostile. Rather, argumentation in the realm of academics means having a clear stance on an issue, detailing specific evidence that supports that stance, establishing common ground with others who have opposing views on that issue, and defending/explaining the advantages of that stance over the oppositions’ arguments.

Terri Pantuso, from Texas A&M University, elaborates:

“Argument is not [always] the loud, assertive, unwavering statement of your opinion in the hopes of conquering the opposition. Argument is the careful consideration of numerous positions and the careful development of logically sound, carefully constructed assertions that, when combined, offer a worthwhile perspective in an ongoing debate. Certainly you want to imagine yourself arguing with others—and certainly you want to believe your ideas have superior qualities to theirs—but the purpose of argument in the college setting is not to solve a practical problem or shut down a conversation. Rather, it’s to illuminate, expand, and further inform a debate happening on a worthwhile subject between reasonable, intelligent people. In other words, calling the opposition stupid is not good argument, it’s an ad hominem attack. [For a review of this and other logical fallacies, refer to the Student Resources section of this text].”

Parts of an argument

Understanding parts of an argument is useful for both analysis and composition. Philosopher Stephen Toulmin created a means for argument analysis, the Toulmin Model, which can also be used to create an argument of one’s own. The Toulmin Model has many levels, but the top three provide an excellent basis for both analysis and construction of an argument. The Colorado State University website has a thorough explanation of Toulmin as well as a worksheet for analyzing and creating an argument: Colorado State University website.

Claims

What is a claim? Simply stated, a claim is a position or stance that the person communicating takes on an issue. Claims exist on a spectrum of complexity; for example, the claim that fruit-flavored candy is better than chocolate is rather minor in comparison to a claim that there is not enough affordable housing in the area, with the former’s focus resting (largely) on dietary preference and the latter’s reach instead extending across financial, political, and educational lines. As you can probably tell then, a claim reflects a position or stance that is the product of a range of influential factors (e.g., biological, psychological, economic, etc.), and as a position or stance it should articulate an idea that is debatable. However, the ability to challenge the claim is not the only criterion that must be met, and the questions below can help guide you in what to look for when evaluating another person’s claim as well as when stating your own.

1. Is the claim clearly and specifically stated? Clarity and specificity are key to ensuring that the claim’s intent and scope will be understood, so beware vague and/or broadly stated claims.
2. Does the claim state an idea that someone not only could debate but also would want to debate? If someone would be uninterested in debating the idea, then it matters little that he/she could do so.
3. Does the claim state an idea that can effectively be supported? If (sufficient) evidence is unavailable to support a claim, then it may be worthwhile to reconsider the claim’s phrasing and/or scope so that it can be revised to state an idea that can be supported more fully.

Reasons

If the claim states a position or stance, then the reasons state ideas that demonstrate why that position or stance is legitimate. Positions/stances are always grounded in certain beliefs and/or experiences, so any time a claim is stated there must be reasons behind it. Reasons can take different forms depending on the rhetorical situation; in particular, the person communicating the claim must be mindful of who the intended audience is and what reasons that audience will find most compelling. Keep in mind that when you are writing an academic paper that is argument-based, it can be helpful to imagine that your audience holds a different position than you do on the topic, which places the burden on you to demonstrate why your ideas are sound. When you imagine your audience agrees with you from the start, you may be more likely to present weaker reasons (as well as evidence) to back your claim.

When evaluating others’ reasons as well as developing and evaluating your own, then, ask the following questions:

1. Who is the intended audience, and what kinds of reasons are they most likely to be persuaded by? The ultimate purpose of the argument is to demonstrate the merits of the claim, so, without carefully considering who the audience is for the argument and what will appeal to them, that purpose is unlikely to be met.
2. How contentious is the claim (i.e., is the claim more likely to be positively or negatively received by the intended audience), and what does that suggest in terms of not only the kinds of reasons that are needed but also the amount? If the claim reflects a highly unpopular opinion, then in order for the argument to succeed it may need not only quality reasons, but also many of them.
3. Are the reasons clearly connected to the claim? If it is not apparent how a reason supports the claim, then further information may be needed to show the relationship between them.
4. Which reasons are the strongest, and which are the weakest? The strength of the reasons should be an important factor when determining organization of the argument since it can impact how the audience interprets and responds to the argument.
5. How complex are the reasons? Just as it is important to consider the strength of the reasons when determining the organization of the argument, it is also necessary to consider their complexity. Some reasons will be simpler to understand, and others will be more nuanced; what is the best ordering of the reasons to maximize each of their contributions to the argument?

Evidence

Although reasons are critical to supporting a claim, without evidence they carry little weight. An audience is unlikely to be persuaded to accept a claim on the basis of reasons alone, particularly if that audience holds a drastically different position than you/the author(s). Evidence can be defined as information that supports the reasons, demonstrating why they are sound ideas (that support the claim).

We tend to think of evidence in terms of statistics (or quantitative data) since people find truth in numbers. Be aware, though, that evidence does not have to be numerical; instead, evidence can take the form of an anecdote (a brief account or story), excerpts from a conversation or an interview, a quotation from a published source, an image or graphic, etc. Also keep in mind that a statistic is not necessarily accurate; just as a quotation can be taken out of context, numbers can also be manipulated. As an audience member, you must be skeptical of the evidence someone presents to you, but, likewise as a writer, you must be diligent in evaluating the credibility and applicability of any information you come across that you intend to present in support of your argument.

Counterargument & Rebuttal

A counterargument involves acknowledging standpoints that go against your argument and then re-affirming your argument. This is typically done by stating the opposing side’s argument, and then ultimately presenting your argument as the most logical solution. The second step is known as rebuttal or refutation. The counterargument is a standard academic move that is used in argumentative essays because it shows the reader that you are capable of understanding and respecting multiple sides of an argument. A counterargument is made of two primary steps:

1. Respectfully acknowledge evidence or standpoints that differ from your argument.
2. Refute the stance of opposing arguments, typically utilizing words like “although” or “however.” In the refutation, you want to show the reader why your position is more correct than the opposing idea.

Some students worry that using a counterargument will take away from their overall argument, but a counterargument may make an essay more persuasive because it shows that the writer has considered multiple sides of the issue. Barnet and Bedau (2005) propose that critical thinking is enhanced through imagining both sides of an argument. Ultimately, an argument is strengthened through a counterargument.

Organizing your argument

A well-structured argument is one that is carefully and optimally planned. It is organized so that the argument has a continuous building of ideas, one upon the other or in concert with the other, in order to produce the most persuasive impact or effect on the reader. For clarity, avoid repeating ideas, reasons, or evidence. Instead, consider how each idea in your argument connects to the others. Should some ideas come before others? Should you build your reasons from simple to complex or from complex to simple? Should you present the counterargument before your reasons? Or, would it make more sense for you to present your reasons and then the concessions and rebuttals? How can you use clear transitional phrases to facilitate reader comprehension of your argument? Consider these questions while constructing and revising your argument.

Simple to Complex/Complex to Simple

Whether structuring a paragraph or a research paper, the simple to complex (or reverse) method can be an effective way to build cohesion throughout your writing. Just as the phrase implies, simple to complex is when a writer introduces a simple concept then builds upon it to heighten interest. Sometimes, the opposite structure works to move the reader through your position. For example, if you choose to write on the topic of pollution as it impacts the world, you might begin with the concept of straws and sea turtles. Your simple topic of sea turtles swallowing straws thrown away might then move to the complex issues of consumption, consumerism and disposal. Conversely, if you begin with the broad, complex topic of consumerism, you could then move to the story of the sea turtles as a way of building pathos in the reader. Whichever method you choose, make sure that the relationship between the topics is logical and clear so that readers find validity in your position.

Cause/Effect

The cause/effect method is a way of establishing a reason, or reasons, why something has occurred. For example, if you live in south Texas, then you understand the problem that mosquitoes cause in the hot, humid summer months. While there is no way to eliminate all mosquitoes, there are ways to minimize their growth in your backyard. If you research the ways in which mosquitoes are born, you would understand the importance of things such as emptying containers of all stagnant water so that they cannot incubate or keeping your grass mowed to eliminate areas for them to populate. The process by which you go through to determine the cause of mosquito infestations is the cause and effect method. In argumentation, you might use this method to support a claim for community efforts to prevent mosquitoes from growing in your neighborhood. Demonstrating that process is effective for a logos based argument.

Chronological

Sometimes an argument is presented best when a sequential pattern is used. Oftentimes, that pattern will be based on the pattern of time in which the sequence occurs. For example, if you are writing an argumentative essay in which you are calling for a new stop light to be installed at a busy intersection, you might utilize a chronological structure to demonstrate the rate of increased accidents over a given period of time at that intersection. If your pattern demonstrates a marked increase in accidents, then your data would show a logical reason for supporting your position. Oftentimes, a chronological pattern involves steps indicated by signal words such as first, next, and finally. Utilizing this pattern will walk readers through your line of reasoning and guide them towards reaching your proposed conclusion.

Emphatic

Another method for organizing your writing is by order of importance. This method is often referred to as emphatic because organization is done based upon emphasis. The direction you choose to go is yours whether you begin with the strongest, most important point of your argument, or the weakest. In either case, the hierarchy of ideas should be clear to readers. The emphatic method is often subjectively based upon the writer’s beliefs. If, for example, you want to build an argument for a new rail system to be used in your city, you will have to decide which reason is most important and which is simply support material. For one writer, the decrease in the number of cars on the road might be the most important aspect as it would result in a reduction of toxic emissions. For another writer, the time saved for commuters might be the most important aspect. The decision to start with your strongest or weakest point is one of style.

Composing Strong Thesis Statements

A strong thesis provides a clear representation of the writer’s stance to readers, and it also provides a litmus test for the writer while crafting the essay. All reasons and evidence should support that thesis. A solid thesis statement notifies readers of the writer’s topic and prepares readers for the argument to come. Likewise, a solid thesis statement helps focus the writer since writers can easily stray from their topics during the creation process, especially while researching for their essay; thus, a solid thesis statement also helps a writer maintain focus on the argument at hand.

Thesis statements come with two parts, a concrete and an abstract, and are usually one sentence. More simply, a thesis statement has a subject and opinion about that subject. For academic writing, the subject needs to be one of concern to a larger audience and one on which that audience has many opinions, not just two.  Writers most often place thesis statements in the introductory paragraph; however, thesis statements can be placed anywhere in the essay and can even be implied.

A thesis statement is a single sentence (or sometimes two for long, complex essays) that provides the answers to these questions clearly and concisely. Ask yourself, “What is my paper about, exactly?” to help you develop a precise and directed thesis, not only for your reader, but for you as well.

A good thesis statement will:

• Consist of just one idea
• Make your position clear
• Be specific
• Have evidence to support it
• Be interesting
• Be written clearly

A good basic structure for a thesis statement is “they say, I say.” What is the prevailing view, and how does your position differ from it? However, avoid limiting the scope of your writing with an either/or thesis under the assumption that your view must be strictly contrary to their view.

Following are some typical thesis statements: (notice the concrete and the abstract  elements in each example)

• Although many readers believe Romeo and Juliet to be a tale about the ill fate of two star-crossed lovers, it can also be read as an allegory concerning a playwright and his audience.
• The “War on Drugs” has not only failed to reduce the frequency of drug-related crimes in America but actually enhanced the popular image of dope peddlers by romanticizing them as desperate rebels fighting for a cause.
• The bulk of modern copyright law was conceived in the age of commercial printing, long before the Internet made it so easy for the public to compose and distribute its own texts. Therefore, these laws should be reviewed and revised to better accommodate modern readers and writers.

Thesis statements are a central and essential element of academic writing. For some students’ thesis statements can seem sort of nebulous or tricky to get right. But once you have a solid understanding of the purpose and nature of a thesis statement, you can begin to see why and how it can really help you in your writing and communication in composition.

Thesis statements as roadmaps

The purpose of the thesis is to clearly state the argument or point to your essay or to the work that you’re engaging in. It lets your audience know what you are going to be discussing, proving, analyzing, and exploring ­– which helps facilitate understanding and context.

If we think about writing academic essays as taking readers on a journey – a walk through the forest, a boat ride, taking a ring to Mordor – with the end result being a reader understanding what you had to say about a certain topic, or perhaps agreeing with you, or being convinced of your argument, or being moved by your words. Your thesis, then, can be that compass that you and your readers can always look back to and see if you are going in the right direction, going true north. Because a strong thesis provides a clear representation of the writer’s stance to readers. It shows them your topic, what you are trying to prove, and/or what you are trying to analyze.

Within that realm, your thesis needs to be investigative, purposeful, and specific.

What do we mean by “investigative?” 

Investigative in the sense that your thesis needs to move beyond being a statement of fact or one-note generalized statement, observation, or an open-ended question or musing. Your thesis lets audiences clearly see your position and the analysis and argument that you are going to be engaging in your essay. It is your overarching analytical claim that you will be unpacking throughout the rest of your paper. It indicates how there can be many opinions and many conversations to be had about a topic.

It needs to be purposeful in the sense that you want to show audiences you have a clear focus and a clear goal in mind beyond a basic summary. Beyond just talking about something off the top of your head.

It is specific in that realm because you don’t want to be vague, you don’t want to generalize within your thesis statement. You want to clearly outline and tap into the main point/s, specifically, that you are going to be discussing in your paper.

Where does it go?

In a traditional essay, usually, a thesis statement is the last sentence or sentences of your introduction where you indicate to readers what you were going to be trying to say within the following paragraphs and pages and what you’re going to be trying to prove within your essay.

Now this placement at the end of the introduction is not a steadfast rule. Nor is the concept that it has to be just one sentence. Oftentimes, as we grow in our writing we can see our thesis expand in certain ways, in length and location. So depending on what genre you are writing in, your thesis might need to be the first line of your essay, in your conclusion, proven and implied in your body paragraphs, even be multiple sentences in your introduction.

When crafting your thesis statement, try to think about the What and the So What?

The “What” is the concrete and informational part of the thesis. What is your topic? What are the key points that you are going to explore about that topic? What are you going to be unpacking? What pieces of evidence are you pulling from?

But you also need to tap into the So What? What are the implications of your argument, of your topic? What does it reveal about society, and culture, history? Why does your topic and your voice matter? Why should it matter to your audience?

In analysis and argumentation, you can ask:

• ‘What have you got to go on?’ (evidence)
• ‘How did you get there?’ (the principles and reasons that caused you to conclude what you did about the evidence)
• ‘Why does this matter?’ (Who should care and why? What does this reveal about society, history, a person, etc.? What should be fixed?)

A strong thesis provides a clear representation of the writer’s stance to readers, and it also provides an anchor for the writer while crafting the essay. It notifies readers of the writer’s topic and prepares readers for the argument to come. All reasons and evidence within the rest of the paper should support that thesis.

Ultimately, the thesis can help focus the writer since writers can easily stray from their topics during the creation process, especially while researching for their essay; thus, a solid thesis statement also helps a writer maintain focus on the argument at hand. As you write as long as you have a strong thesis statement you always go back and see what you were originally trying to say and prove and explore. This is also helpful if you realize that what you originally wanted to write about isn’t what your paper has become. In writing and research our ideas expand and grow and sometimes shift so if your body paragraphs are exploring something else entirely you can then go back and revise your thesis to better reflect the journey you took readers on.

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