A secure and stable environment is primarily characterized by the absence of large-scale hostilities, violence, and the lingering threat posed by mines and explosive remnants of war (ERW), which allows the civilian population to pursue its daily activities in relative safety. In such an environment, there is a reasonable level of public order, the state holds a monopoly over the legitimate use of violence, the population enjoys physical security and freedom of movement, and the country’s borders are managed to mitigate the effects of transnational organised crime (see 4.4 Threats from Spoilers Managed), and to protect against invasion or infiltration by foreign armies or armed groups. A peace operation – and in particular its police and military components – often plays a key role in creating a secure and stable environment until the host government is in a position to maintain internal and external security. In so doing, the mission can also support the first steps towards reform (see Chapter 5).
The changing character of conflict, along with an increase in the number of regional partnerships, have made UN peace operations more complex. There may be other military forces operating in parallel to, or with a different mandate or purpose from, the UN mission. Operations may also be bilateral, as in the French interventions in Côte d’Ivoire and Mali, or the African Union Mission in Somalia and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) operation in Afghanistan. It is important for mission leadership to identify and map the other actors present in the country and establish relationships with each country not officially contributing troops to the UN mission. This effort will ensure parallel forces are not working at cross purposes, reduce the potential for “friendly” fire incidents, ensure accountability for violations of international law, and reduce the confusion of those citizens the mission is supposed to protect.
The use of force
When the MLT determines that other means – in particular, political dialogue – have not been effective and force must be used to fulfil its mandated tasks, the use of force must be linked to the desired political outcomes. The mission should project strength and not allow the use of violence by spoilers to undermine a peace process. This means that it has to demonstrate a credible, flexible force posture and presence which does not yield to the unlawful use of force by non-state actors.
Military commanders and their units must have a mindset that demonstrates a resolve, readiness and capacity to respond appropriately to hostile acts and threats of violence. UN military units must openly display professional conduct at all times. Shows of force, and of the determination and resolve to act, contribute to military credibility and may reduce the need to use force. Using agile, mobile and robust forces in an indirect approach to deter spoilers, pre-empt destabilizing actions and neutralize threats can often calm a volatile situation. It also reassures the population and provides a visible demonstration of external support that allows other elements of the peace process to be implemented.
The use of force depends on an understanding of the specific situation and the threat environment. It should be part of the political strategy of the mission; legal; consistent with the rules of engagement (ROE) for the military or the Directive on the Use of Force for the police; proportionate; critically necessary; and capable of achieving the desired outcome. When needed, force should be used to deter, pre-empt, neutralize and consolidate. Reliable intelligence is essential for the effective, proportionate and judicious use of force.
Deter
Deterrence refers to actions taken to discourage potentially hostile acts. It requires that the UN has communicated its intent of responding with the use of force under certain conditions, and that this is perceived as a credible commitment, which means that the UN is capable, effective, and able to carry out its mandate. It is reinforced if the mission has responded to earlier breaches through similar resolute actions.
Examples of deterring actions include adopting a strong deterrent posture, conducting visible patrols and establishing check points. Additional actions might include demonstrations of mobility and speed in the redeployment of troops; information networking; regular security surveys, inspections and assessments of facilities, camps and bases in the area of operation/interest; strengthening UN installation physical security; and engaging in community-based activities.
Deterrence serves to dissuade a spoiler from using violence where the mission is present, encourages confidence among the local population and supports the mission security framework. Deterrence activities need to be communicated to the adversary, through contact with potentially violent actors where possible. Dialogue with local communities and engagement with both male and female representatives of those communities is essential to achieving situational awareness. Implementing a good strategic communications plan is essential for deterrence.
Pre-empt
Pre-emption refers to active measures to contain an identified threat against civilians, UN and associated personnel or UN installations, and/ or to gain advantage over a threatening group before it can carry out a hostile act.
Examples of pre-emptive actions by peacekeepers include interpositioning and shows of force or manoeuvring of forces to demonstrate resolve and defuse situations; enforcing curfews, cordon and search operations; targeted use of necessary and proportionate force against identified potential hostile acts and hostile threats; apprehension and detention operations; and tactical redeployment of troops to guard key infrastructure, terrain or targeted groups, consistent with the ROE. Again, this must be accompanied by a well-developed strategic communications plan and a “Do No Harm” approach to avoid unintended consequences for the population and general resistance against the mission.
Neutralize
Neutralizing refers to actions that involve the necessary and proportionate use of force to neutralize, isolate or render ineffective a hostile act endangering life and/or impeding implementation of mandated tasks such as the protection of civilians. Peacekeeper responses should be timely and assertive, as authorized by the mandate and the ROE. Examples of neutralizing actions include physical protection and evacuation of civilians at risk; direct confrontation; robust camp defence; search and rescue; and close air support.
Consolidate
Consolidation refers to activities to manage the situation after a hostile threat has subsided. It involves actions to deny spoilers the ability to restore their capability, and assisting the local population and host-country authorities in normalizing the situation. The MLT should act swiftly and robustly, together with the host government, to ensure that the rule of law is reinstated and upheld, and that spoilers are brought to justice. This not only supports national and local ownership, but also serves to deter future hostile actions. Examples of consolidation actions include support for DDR activities; security support to facilitate civilian-led humanitarian activities; the establishment of procedures to monitor and safeguard buffer zones and treaty compliance; threat assessment; and robust defence. Consolidation requires an active strategic communications plan.
Preconditions for success
- An agreement forms the basis of the peace process, the implementation of which leads to a sustained settlement of the conflict.
- All major parties to the conflict are committed to the peace process.
- International/regional partners support the peace process.
- TCCs/PCCs remain committed to pledges, which include training, preparation, equipment and willingness to act robustly when needed.
- National authorities develop the capacity to address security and stability issues.
Benchmarks
The following benchmarks represent a desired end state, which may take many years to achieve, and which therefore calls for perseverance and long-term engagement.
- Large-scale armed conflict has ended, a ceasefire or peace agreement is being implemented, violent spoilers are controlled and immediate impacts of mines and ERW are being addressed.
- Police institutional structures are in place and services are functioning throughout the country.
- Fair popular access to justice has improved.
- Public order prevails; laws are respected and enforced, while criminal and political violence has been reduced to a minimum; and criminal elements are pursued, arrested and tried.
- National security services operate lawfully and enjoy the support of the public, while major illegal armed groups have been identified and disarmed.
- No part of the population lives in fear of threats to physical safety; displaced people can return safely; and critical infrastructure and key historical and cultural sites are being protected.
- There is freedom of movement for all parts of society throughout the country and across its borders, which are reasonably secured against invasion or infiltration by armed groups, as well as the illegal movement of goods (especially weapons or drugs) and people across borders, which is part of the remit of the UN Police (UNPOL) on organized crime.
MINUSCA: Red lines and the use of force
A critical question for the leadership of a UN peace operation is how far a mission can go in using force, and when it is right to do so. While the grounds for the use of force are likely to be fairly well defined in the mandate (usually in terms of the need to protect civilians, probably also to protect the mission and humanitarian actors, and to defend the mandate) and reflected in the military Concept of Operations and Rules of Engagement, much will depend on the interpretation of, for example, what constitutes a threat to civilians, or when it is justifiable for a mission to defend its mandate by force.
For example, in the UN Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in the Central African Republic (MINUSCA), when certain ex-Seleka groups were threatening to march on Bambari (the second biggest city in the country), the mission decided that its protection of civilians (POC) mandate meant that it could set “red lines”, beyond which armed groups would face the use of force. When some rebels breached these red lines, the mission justified air strikes in terms of protecting civilians.
UN peace operation must not be a party to the conflict, and the International Committee of the Red Cross, which acts as the guardian of international humanitarian law, was clear that the airstrikes would have compromised the mission’s status were it not for the specific warnings given that this was how we would interpret our POC mandate.
It was important for MINUSCA to have thought through the implications and consequences of the airstrikes. These questions of interpretation are likely to arise during a crisis situation and a mission leader may have little time to decide what they can do. So, having a sound understanding of the limits, and indeed of how far those limits can be stretched, is essential.
Diane Corner, DSRSG, MINUSCA, 2014–17
Outputs
In summary, the six operational outputs that contribute to creating a secure and stable environment are: