SSR is the overarching process that helps to define the norms and standards under which the security and justice sectors will operate, the needs and gaps that exist, and the means by which these gaps will be overcome. It is a critical activity for ensuring long-term security and rule of law in any country. Only the establishment and maintenance of professional security services that respond to the security needs of the population and the state, while adhering to human rights standards, will assure long-term security and sustained peace. This section reviews the conditions for the overarching support to the process of SSR. Subsequent sections provide further details on the strengthening of the police, corrections and defence sectors (see Chapter 5).
The mission’s role will primarily be to assist the national authorities with reforming the security sector. This is a long-term process that does not have a fixed end date and is unlikely to be completed within the timeframe of the peace operation. Therefore, a long-term approach is needed that goes beyond the activities that can be carried out within the period of a mission’s mandate. Support to SSR needs to be closely monitored by the MLT and will involve interactions between several mission components, the UNCT and a host of external actors.
SSR focuses on building effective, accountable and sustainable security sectors within a framework of the rule of law and respect for human rights. It is a complex and highly political process that is often linked to the structural causes of conflict. It may lead to questions of intrusion into national sovereignty and tensions between the mission and the host government and donors. In recognizing this, the MLT will need to consider early on in the peace process, in discussion with national, regional and international actors, how the mission will support SSR efforts and the most appropriate mechanisms for guiding, implementing and monitoring these activities.
National ownership and leadership are key elements of a successful SSR process. Weak national capacity or a lack of genuine political will on the part of national actors is likely to undermine the process. The political roots of internal conflict may continue into the post-conflict phase and are often played out in competition within and between security institutions. Therefore, external technical and financial support for this process must be complemented by active political engagement to resolve political issues.
The national SSR strategy reflects the host country’s culture, sensitivities and historical conceptions of security. It does not seek to implement a Western paradigm of the security sector, and understands that a Western model may not be appropriate. Nonetheless, SSR planners cannot adopt a lax attitude to security practices that contribute to conflict or instability. As with the broader campaign plan, the SSR strategy will seek to resolve the underlying sources of conflict while preventing new security crises.
5.4.1 Operational activities
Providing support to SSR may entail reform of a number of sectors and actors including the police, other law-enforcement agencies, corrections, defence and intelligence services, the ministries that manage these services, parliamentary accountability mechanisms as well as assistance to institutions responsible for border management, customs and civil emergencies. In order to ensure long-term security, SSR should also include efforts to promote good governance and civilian oversight of these services.
Initial investment in the creation of an integrated approach to supporting national SSR efforts through joint assessment and analysis, planning and adoption of a shared work plan and benchmarks will pay dividends in the medium to long term. This integrated approach should take account of the close relationship between SSR and strengthening the rule of law, and should include all relevant mission components and sections (i.e. UNPOL, Justice and Corrections). Hiring and retaining high-quality personnel in these areas will be essential.
The key operational activities of the mission in support of this output include:
- Conducting multi-agency assessments of the security sector in support of the national SSR process.
- Providing political and technical support to the national dialogue aiming at a shared vision of, and a national strategy on, the security sector.
- Supporting the implementation of the security sector strategy and its related plans in the different sub-sectors.
- Helping create conditions for a more gender-equitable security sector providing equal opportunities and services for women and men.
- Establishing the principles and structures of the security sector’s accountability to civilian political leadership to ensure good governance (e.g. through parliamentary oversight bodies, ombudsman institutions and civil society).
5.4.2 Benchmarks
In addition to short-, medium- and long-term benchmarks (see below), the following indicative list contains both process- and results-oriented benchmarks, which provide a framework for the reform process of the security sector as a whole.
- A national concept of security developed. The host country develops a concept of security that reflects the security and justice needs of the people, underpinned by good governance and transparency and enjoys a political consensus around it.
- All-security-sector framework or strategy established. SSR should encompass all security sector actors. It provides a framework for structuring thinking about the diverse security challenges facing the host country and its population. The framework should ensure civilian involvement and oversight and be both coherent and coordinated.
- Cooperation with and among civil authorities developed. Security services must develop SSR approaches in cooperation with the public and led by the civil authorities. Effective strategies should be reflected in a comprehensive strategy that encompasses the numerous functions of the security sector.
- Human rights norms respected. SSR must be based on democratic norms and abide by the principles of international human rights. SSR should enhance the institutional and human capacity of security actors to function effectively, and help ensure that justice is delivered impartially and is consistent with the rule of law.
- Monitoring systems created. It will also be important to create and implement monitoring systems to track developments and changing needs to continually update the effectiveness and accountability of the security and justice sectors.
Short-term
- Assessment of the security sector completed.
- National dialogue initiated on a shared vision for the security sector and on key elements of a national security sector strategy. This includes a delineation of clear roles of the different security services (especially between the police and the military), chains of command, and governance and accountability structures.
- Mission provides political support to overarching SSR process and technical support to sub-sectors of the security sector.
- Funding and support mechanisms are agreed, national ownership and a light international footprint promoted within the UN and with other international actors, including development banks and bilateral donors.
- Mission and UNCT activities coordinated in support of DDR (see 4.6: Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration Programmes Implemented).
Medium-term
- A national SSR strategy has been agreed upon by key national stakeholders, promoting the security interests of the population at large and the state.
- Oversight mechanisms in place and functioning, including both state actors and civil society.
- Sector-wide plans (including plans for each sub-sector) have been finalized and are being implemented.
- The mission and the international community support the implementation of the national SSR strategy and agree on mechanism to harmonize support to avoid overlapping/ duplication of efforts.
- National and international expectations managed effectively, with a public information strategy supporting the process.
Long-term
- SSR has advanced in its implementation with continued political commitment from key national stakeholders and support from the international community.
- Public confidence in the security sector and its respective services restored.
- Oversight bodies are functioning and capable of leading, challenging, reproaching and controlling the security sector.
- National and international policies and responses are better integrated with long-term development frameworks.
- Meaningful input from civil society actors established and legitimized.
- Monitoring system established to track changes/progress and identify evolving needs.
5.4.3 Responsibilities and coordination
SSR is a far-reaching systemic endeavour and requires careful coordination on the part of the MLT. The SSR and DDR divisions or sections of the mission (which are often combined) are in the lead, supported by justice and corrections, and the police and military components.
Multiple actors may provide support to the security sector concurrent with the UN’s activities. It is therefore essential to coordinate and achieve rationalization among these efforts. External assistance should not undermine host government ownership and legitimacy. National institutions, laws, and processes – however weak – should play a central role in formulating and implementing programmes and processes.
External planners should be careful to respect host country sovereignty by involving the host government in planning and execution. SSR processes should be closely coordinated with DDR programmes.
5.4.4 Resources
Some SSR-related programmatic activities may be funded by the peacekeeping assessed budget, if approved in the mission’s budget. However, a fully-fledged SSR process takes time, requires strategic as well as operational resources and is likely to require donor support beyond the lifespan of the mission. For this reason, coordination with the UNCT, the World Bank and bilateral donors at an early stage is essential to ensure sustainability of effort.
5.4.5 Challenges and risks
- National elites’ divergent political interests derail SSR process.
- Security sector services’ infrastructure is severely degraded.
- SSR reforms do not keep pace with DDR processes or political reforms.
- State revenues are low, and funding of SSR is inadequate, leaving the security sector weak and disaffected, and creating substantive hurdles for good governance and the rule of law.
5.4.6 Considerations
Effective SSR requires unity of effort and a shared vision by those contributing to the reform process to support the nationally owned process. Integrated programmes that consider relationships among organizations, sectors and actors increase the likelihood of success, minimize unforeseen developments and ensure the most effective use of resources. Four principles should be taken into account when designing and supporting SSR:
- Support national ownership while incorporating principles of good governance and respect for human rights.
- Balance efforts to enhance operational capacity against support to ensure effective governance.
- Foster transparency, accountability, dialogue and trust.
- Balance “do no harm” against “do what works” and “what is right”.
In addition to these four principles, there are a number of specific considerations for the MLT in peace operations.
National or sector focus
The decision to initiate SSR at the national or sub-national level must depend on assessed needs and security requirements.
Resources may not be available to professionalize all parts of the security sector in parallel, and trade-offs relevant to geography and culture should be considered.
Balancing short-term security imperatives against investments in broader security reform
Perhaps the most critical trade-off faced by the mission will be choosing between an urgent need to address security and public order issues – possibly by lending legitimacy to less-than-democratic processes and actors, redundant layers of security provision and organizations that have reputations for corruption and lack of professionalism – and establishing legitimacy for patterns of governance and actors that support accountability, transparency and other processes critical to good governance.
While quick wins might build credibility, they can undermine deeper reform of the security sector (see 4.5: Public Order Established).