5.4 Logical, Emotional, and Ethical Fallacies
Rhetorical appeals have power. They can be used to motivate or to manipulate. When they are used irresponsibly, they lead to fallacies. Fallacies are, at best, unintentional reasoning errors, and at worst, they are deliberate attempts to deceive. Fallacies are commonly used in advertising and politics, but they are not acceptable in academic arguments. The following are some examples of three kinds of fallacies that abuse the power of logical, emotional, or ethical appeals (logos, pathos, or ethos).
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Logical Fallacies |
Examples |
| Begging the question (or circular reasoning): The point is simply restated in different words as proof to support the point. | Tall people are more successful because they accomplish more. |
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Either/or fallacy: A situation is presented as an “either/or” choice when in reality, there are more than just two options. |
Either I start to college this fall or I work in a factory for the rest of my life. |
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False analogy: A comparison is made between two things that are not enough alike to support the comparison. |
This summer camp job is like a rat cage. They feed us and let us out on a schedule. |
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Hasty generalization: A conclusion is reached with insufficient evidence. |
I wouldn’t go to that college if I were you because it is extremely unorganized. I had to apply twice because they lost my first application. |
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non sequitur: Two unrelated ideas are erroneously shown to have a cause-and-effect relationship. |
If you like dogs, you would like a pet lion. |
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post hoc ergo propter hoc (or false cause and effect): The writer argues that A caused B because B happened after A. |
George W. Bush was elected after Bill Clinton, so it is clear that dissatisfaction with Clinton lead to Bush’s election. |
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Red herring: The writer inserts an irrelevant detail into an argument to divert the reader’s attention from the main issue. |
My room might be a mess, but I got an A in math. |
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Self-contradiction: One part of the writer’s argument directly contradicts the overall argument. |
Man has evolved to the point that we clearly understand that there is no such thing as evolution. |
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Straw man: The writer rebuts a competing claim by offering an exaggerated or oversimplified version of it. |
Claim—You should take a long walk every day. Rebuttal—You want me to sell my car, or what? |
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Emotional Fallacies Apple polishing: Flattery of the audience is disguised as a reason for accepting a claim. |
Examples You should wear a fedora. You have the perfect bone structure for it. |
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Flattery: The writer suggests that readers with certain positive traits would naturally agree with the writer’s point. |
You are a calm and collected person, so you can probably understand what I am saying. |
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Group think (or group appeal): The reader is encouraged to decide about an issue based on identification with a popular, high-status group. |
The varsity football players all bought some of our fundraising candy. Do you want to buy some? |
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Riding the bandwagon: The writer suggests that since “everyone” is doing something, the reader should do it too. |
The hot thing today is to wear black socks with tennis shoes. You’ll look really out of it if you wear those white socks. |
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Scare tactics (or veiled threats): The writer uses frightening ideas to scare readers into agreeing or believing something. |
If the garbage collection rates are not increased, your garbage will likely start piling up. |
| Stereotyping: The writer uses a sweeping, general statement about a group of people in order to prove a point. | Women won’t like this movie because it has too much action and violence.
OR Men won’t like this movie because it’s about feelings and relationships. |
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Ethical Fallacies Argument from outrage: Extreme outrage that springs from an overbearing reliance on the writer’s own subjective perspective is used to shock readers into agreeing instead of thinking for themselves. |
Examples I was absolutely beside myself to think that anyone could be stupid enough to believe that the Ellis Corporation would live up to its commitments. The totally unethical management there failed to require the metal grade they agreed to. This horrendous mess we now have is completely their fault, and they must be held accountable. |
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False authority (or hero worship or appeal to authority or appeal to celebrity): A celebrity is quoted or hired to support a product or idea in efforts to sway others’ opinions. |
LeBron James wears Nikes, and you should too. |
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Guilt by association: An adversary’s credibility is attacked because the person has friends or relatives who possibly lack in credibility. |
We do not want people like her teaching our kids. Her father is in prison for murder. |
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Personal attack (or ad hominem): An adversary’s personal attributes are used to discredit his or her argument. |
I don’t care if the government hired her as an expert. If she doesn’t know enough not to wear jeans to court, I don’t trust her judgment about anything. |
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Poisoning the well: Negative information is shared about an adversary so others will later discredit his or her opinions. |
I heard that he was charged with aggravated assault last year, and his rich parents got him off. |
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Scapegoating: A certain group or person is unfairly blamed for all sorts of problems. |
Jake is such a terrible student government president; it is no wonder that it is raining today and our spring dance will be ruined. |
Do your best to avoid using these examples of fallacious reasoning, and be alert to their use by others so that you aren’t “tricked” into a line of unsound reasoning. Getting into the habit of reading academic, commercial, and political rhetoric carefully will enable you to see through manipulative, fallacious uses of verbal, written, and visual language. Being on guard for these fallacies will make you a more proficient college student, a smarter consumer, and a more careful voter, citizen, and member of your community.
Continue Reading: 5.5 More Information about Ethos, Pathos, and Logos
