Glossary

The recommended proprotion of a person's daily calories that should come from protein (10-35%), fat (20-35%), and carbohydrates (45-65%).

Digestive organs that add secretions to the process of digestion, but the food itself does not enter these organs.

Form of nutrient absorption that requires both a carrier and energy in the form of ATP. This means that nutrients can be absorbed even if there are already many in the blood (against a concentration gradient)

Sugars and/or syrups added to food during preparation, processing, or at the table.

chemical energy obtained from the breakdown of food molecules and released to fuel cellular processes

body fat

substituting a poorer quality, inferior ingredient or substance into a produce reducing the quality of the original product

Process by which organisms use oxygen to turn fuels such as glucose and fatty acids, into chemical energy (ATP)

Most abundant protein in the blood; important for fluid balance between blood and body cells

Enzyme used to breakdown alcohol (ethanol) in the liver.

Characteristics describing the cycle of alcohol addiction: binge/intoxication stage, withdrawal/negative stage, and the preoccupation/anticipation stage.

The inability to control drinking due to both a physical and emotional dependence on alcohol.

Amino acids from ingested proteins plus dismantled proteins that can be used by the body cells for protein synthesis.

building blocks of protein

building of molecules and tissues

Without oxygen

negatively charged electrolytes

Blood protein produced in response to a specific foreign invader or antigen. Antibodies combine with "alien" substances such as bacteria or viruses, and counteract their ability to infect body cells

the psychological desire for food

Condition of deficiency of riboflavin (vitamin B2)

blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart and to the lungs for gas exchange and to the body cells to deliver oxygen and nutrients and to pick up wastes

A reduction or shrinking of the size of a cell or tissue.

The amount of energy required by the body to conduct basic functions. For most people it is 50-70% of the total calories they require each day.

Condition caused by deficiency of thiamin (vitamin B1)

Substance made in the liver, stored in the gallbladder. It emulsifies fats, allowing them to mix more readily with water-based enzymes for digestion

consuming 5 or more alcoholic drinks per day for men, 4 or more for women

Stage 1 of Alcohol Use Disorder, alcohol consumption initiates the reward/pleasure system of the brain.

The amount of a substance that is absorbed, transported, and subsequently used in the body

legal measurement used to assess intoxication and the impairment and ability to perform certain activities such as driving a car

the amount of fat tissue versus the amount of lean tissue in a body, idetified as % fat

clinical term describing the inability to stop thinking about a body "flaw" that is either real or imagined

food that has been partially broken down that leaves the mouth and enters the pharynx and esophagus - the amount you swallow each time

unit of measurement of food energy; the amount of energy required to raise 1 kilogram of water 1 degree Celsius.

tiniest blood vessels

breakdown of molecules into smaller units

positively charged electrolytes

hormone released from the duodenum that initiates bile release from the gallbladder

hormone released from the pancreas that tells the gallbladder to release bile

Most well known sterol in the body important for cell membrane structure and the formation of substances like hormones and bile. Found only in animal foods in the diet.

lipoprotein that transports lipid from the small intestine into the lymph vessel for transport to the liver

partially digested food that is a semiliquid mass that leaves the stomach about a tablespoon at a time and enters the duodenum of the small intestine

signs that can be easily seen such as bleeding, vomiting or fainting

organic molecules required by enzymes to catalyze a specific reaction

A non-protein chemical compound (often a mineral) that is required for some enzymes to function.

inorganic minerals that bind to enzymes to assist in chemical reactions

breast milk produced immediately after birth and for first few days after birth; contains protein, fat soluble vitamins, minerals, and antibodies beneficial for the infant's new immune system

two or more incomplete protein foods that, when consumed together, provide all nine of the essential amino acids

Foods that contain all nine essential amino acids in relatively high amounts

a normally non-essential nutrient that becomes essential due to a disease, condition, or medication

Nonessential amino acids that become essential during specific times in the lifecycle or any time due to diseases or conditions.

factors other than the ones being tested in a research study that could be influencing the results. It is important to control for as many variables as possible to assure research results are valid

group in a research study that does not receive any type of treatment

Times during pregnancy where the infrastructure for body parts is developed. The developing baby is particularly vulnerable to damage caused by poor nutrition, medications, alcohol, or other harmful exposures.

Located on nutrition fact labels, this value represents the percentage of the recommended amount of a given nutrient per one serving of a particular food.

Process of combining molecules by removing a water molecule. This occurs in many instances in the body including the building of macromolecules such as glycogen, storage fat, and protein.

physical changes such as unraveling that occur in proteins when they are exposed to heat, acid, high salt concentrations, alcohol, and mechanical agitation

cavities

polysaccharides found in plants that are not digestible in humans due to lack of fiber-digesting enzymes

Chemical compounds created during manufacturing that can pollute water sources. Fish become contaminated, and the compounds can cause cancer.

any abnormal condition affecting the health of organisms, characterized by specific signs and symptoms

A disturbed and unhealthy eating pattern that may or may not meet the diagnostic criteria for an eating disorder.

a type of research study design in which neither the participant nor the researcher know in which group (treatment or control) the participant is assigned; It is a way to minimize bias

First and smallest section of the small intestine, where the bulk of chemical digestion of foods occurs.

length of an exercise session

impaired ability to swallow

Atoms that can separate into charged ions when dissolved.

second stage of pregnancy; multi-celled organism that implants in uterus

Food or beverages such as sugary sodas or candy containing calories but no beneficial nutrients

Substances that allow the mixing of water-based substances and oils

energy intake equals energy required

Foods containing many kcal per amount consumed

macronutrients that can provide energy in the form of kilocalories (kcal)

The replacement of nutrients lost when a food is processed

Replacement of nutrients that are lost with food processing.

proteins that catalyze specific chemical reactions by lowering the amount of energy and time it takes for the reaction to occur

types of scientific studies that observe what happens in a population in relation to health over time in order to find risk factors for a health event; these types of studies do not determine cause

Small flap that covers the entrance of the trachea when you swallow to stop the bolus of food from entering the trachea instead of the esophagus

Hormone released from adrenal glands. Considered the "fight-or-flight" hormone, it promotes breakdown of glycogen to provide quick energy to primarily the brain in addition to increasing heart rate and blood pressure, expanding air passages in the lungs, and enlarging pupils in the eyes.

fight-or-flight hormone released from the adrenal gland

substances, devices, practices, or treatments that improve athletic of physical performance

muscular digestive tube that connects the mouth to the stomach

required by the body, and it must be consumed in the diet

Nine amino acids that must be consumed in the diet because the body cannot make them in sufficient amounts to sustain life

The amount of body fat a person requires to function. In males it is generally considered to be 2-5%, in females 10-12%

fatty acids that cannot be synthesized in adequate amounts by the body and must be consumed in the diet

form of physical activity that is structured, planned, repetitive, and performed with the goal of improving health or fitness

outside of cells

Automatic reflex where a baby will push food placed on their tongue back out of the mouth

Transport mechanism requiring a protein carrier which shuttles molecules such as some nutrients across cell membranes. The process does not require energy so is considered passive.

A condition caused by disordered eating patterns (usually insufficient calories) which leads to issues in female athletes such as irregular menstruation or amenorrhea, which can lead to low bone density (osteopenia).

third and final stage of pregnancy

final stage of pregnancy; fetal development includes maturation of organ systems until they are able to work outside the womb

an immune response to a protein in a food product, the response can involve any area of the body: mouth, tongue, skin, GI tract, lungs, cardiovascular system, and can even cause death

geographic regions with limited or no access to healthy foods within reasonable traveling distance

Infection caused when ingested food contains a pathogen (bacteria, virus, etc)

a negative response to a food product involving primarily the gastrointestinal system (gas, bloating, cramps, diarrhea)

Occurs when ingested food contains a toxin such as mold or toxic pollutants

The application of ionizing radiation to food that improves the safety and extends the shelf life of foods by reducing or eliminating microorganisms and insects.

A period of time where children want to eat only the same few things for several days and at every meal.

The handling or treatment of food to prevent or slow spoilage. Preservation techniques include refrigeration, curing, smoking, canning, picking, drying, vacuum packing, and pasteurization.

The transformation of raw ingredients into packaged foods

having adequate access to food and enough nutrients to achieve a healthy lifestyle

Neighborhoods where the food environment consists primarily of fast food and junk food, with limited healthier alternatives

type of mature milk secreted early in a feeding; contains water, vitamins, and protein

Nutrients added to a food product that would not naturally occur in that product.

a molecule with an unpaired electron

how often one participates in exercise; usually expressed in days per week

stomach stretching

Digestive enzyme released from the stomach that begins the digestion of lipids in adults

sequence of DNA that makes up your genes

hunger hormone secreted from the stomach when it is empty

Hormone produced by alpha cells in the pancreas. It is released when blood glucose levels decrease (between meals). It signals the liver to break down it's stored glycogen to raise blood glucose.

Formation of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources such as lipids and protein

main form of carbohydrate in the body

numeric value given to carbohydrate-containing foods based on their ability to raise blood glucose levels

an indicator of both the glycemic index and the actual effect on blood glucose a food will provide.

stored form of glucose in animals including humans; stored in liver and skeletal muscle

The formation of glycogen from excess glucose molecules, occurring in the liver and muscle cells

The breakdown of glycogen to glucose for use as energy

Enlargement of the thyroid gland caused by a severe and chronic deficiency of iodine.

encompasses physical, psychological, and social well-being, not just the absence of disease

Form of iron that is most easily absorbed, found only in animal foods.

Condition caused by a genetic mutation that leads to abnormal iron metabolism. Iron accumulates in organs such as liver, pancreas, and heart and can cause serious symptoms such as impaired pancreatic and liver function.

Protein on red blood cells that transports oxygen

Lipoprotein made and secreted from the liver that travels through the blood, picks up LDL, and returns it to the liver. Often called "good" cholesterol

form of mature milk released during a feeding after fore milk; contains higher levels of fat necessary for weight gain

chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands such as the thyroid, pituitary, adrenal glands and the brain's hypothalamus and secreted directly into the blood

physical feeling of emptiness accompanied by other symptoms caused by lack calorie intake

Adding hydrogen atoms to an unsaturated fatty acid which allows the double bonds to break and become single bonds. Used in food processing to extend shelf life and harden fats.

The process of chemically splitting macromolecules by the addition of water. It is used in many places in the body, including digestion where large carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins are split into smaller molecules.

A condition of high blood glucose

High levels of potassium in the blood which can be life threatening.

increase in cell number

increase in the size of a cell or tissue such as fat cells or muscle

Low blood glucose

Low levels of potassium in the blood.

very low levels of sodium in the blood; can be life-threatening, usually caused by excessive water intake (water intoxication)

Decreased production of thyroid hormones, primarily T3 and T4.

Third and final section of the small intestine where much nutrient absorption occurs.

Food that contain fewer than nine of the essential amino acids

time between exposure to a pathogen or toxin and the onset of physical symptoms

Required on all food labeling; ingredients are listed in descending order by weight in a serving of the product

Hormone released by beta cells of the pancreas during hyperglycemia. Insulin transports blood glucose into body cells, removing it from the blood.

an estimate of how hard one is working during an exercise bout

remains of VLDL after transport in the blood; contains cholesterol; will become LDL

space between cells

studies that change one variable between groups to determine causal relationships

When blood alcohol level exceeds the rate at which the liver can metabolize it; leading to physical and mental impairment

within cells

substance made in the stomach that is required for vitamin B12 absorption; secretion of this substance slowly naturally declines after age 50

a charged atom

Most common nutrient deficiency disease in the world, caused by inadequate iron levels in the body. Common symptoms are fatigue, weakness, pale skin, dizziness, and shortness of breath.

Second and longest section of the small intestine where chemical digestion and absorption of nutrients occurs

one thousand calories, denoted as kcal or Calorie (capital C) on nutrition food labels

Form of malnutrition that occurs when calorie intake is adequate but protein intake is lacking. It primarily affects children.

Digestive enzyme secreted from intestinal villi that splits lactose into glucose and galactose.

Produced when oxygen is limited during physical activity; build up of lactate causes muscle fatigue

also called lactogenesis, it is the synthesis and secretion of breast mlk

Condition where a person does not generate enough lactase so they cannot completely digest lactose. This causes gas, bloating, diarrhea, and cramping.

hormone released by fat cells; signals to the hypothalamus that eating is not required, often called the satiety hormone; helps regulate long term food intake

The amino acids in the shortest supply relative to its requirement

digestive enzymes released from salivary glands that begins the digestion of lipids in infants

The process that forms triglycerides from glycerol and fatty acids.

Group of lipid transport molecules

Made in the liver from IDLs, transport cholesterol to the body from the liver

sphincter between the esophagus and the stomach

Classes of nutrients needed in relatively large amounts. These include carbohydrate, protein, lipid, and water.

nutrient intake which does not meet calorie and/or nutrient requirements for health

Digestive enzyme secreted by intestinal villi that splits maltose into glucose monosaccharides.

Form of malnutrition that occurs when both calories and protein intake are inadequate. It affects both children and adults.

scientific word for chewing

final form of breast milk secreted beginning two weeks after birth; contains fore-milk and hind-milk

State where nutrients absorbed match energy required to carry out biological processes

Total of all of the chemical reactions that take place in the body, both anabolic (building) and catabolic (breaking).

Lipid transport molecule surrounded by bile salts allowing dietary lipids to be absorbed into the walls of the small intestine

very small finger-like projections on the tips of the villi of the small intestine

powerhouse of a cell

a fatty acids with one C=C double bond in the carbon chain

Natural, poisonous substances contained in molds that develop in crops such as grains, nuts, and produce.

Oxygen-carrier protein in muscle

letter used in research studies to indicate the number of participants in the study; ex. n=150 means there are 150 participants in the study. Generally the higher the n the more credible the results of the study

energy intake is less than energy required

a reaction that causes the output of a system to be lessened, leading to homeostasis

level of health associated with illness, and, at the extreme, premature death

Amount of nitrogen excreted is greater than the amount ingested through protein intake. To compensate the body must break down proteins to meet cellular requirements. Occurs primarily when a person is diseased or is consuming a low protein diet.

Side effect in some people of excessive consumption of niacin (vitamin B3). Causes redness of the face, arms, chest due to vasodilation of small blood vessels. You may also experience tingling, burning and itching.

Preventable and reversible condition of inability to see clearly in low light situations. Can be caused by vitamin A deficiency.

The balance between nitrogen consumed through protein intake and nitrogen losses in urine, feces, hair, nails and skin.

nutrients that can be manufactured by the body in adequate amounts so consumption is not required

Energy expended for everything a person does throughout the day that is not sleeping, eating, or sports-like activities. It consists of activities of daily living and varies greatly from person to person and day to day.

Form of iron not well absorbed that is found in both plant and animal foods

Amino acids that can be made by the body in sufficient amounts so do not need to be consumed in the diet.

the amount of nutrients a food contains relative to the energy it provides

chemicals found in food essential for health

Identification of genetic markers that modify an individual's need for or use of various nutrients.

study of the relationships among genes, diet, and health outcomes

study of how nutrients interact with each other and with the body

systematic process of collecting and interpreting information in order to make decisions about the nature and cause of nutrition-related health issues that affect an individual

Scientific exploration of how an organism nourishes itself and how this nourishment affects personal, population, and planetary health.

Defined by CDC as an environment that promotes increased food intake of non-healthful foods, and physical inactivity.

term used in chemistry to denote that a molecule contains the carbon atom

the concentration of dissolved particles (solutes) in a fluid

control of fluid balance in the body using solutes; keeps fluids from becoming too diluted or too concentrated

passive movement of fluids through a membrane from areas of higher concentration to areas of lower concentration

bone-building cells that deposit minerals like calcium in bone

bone crushing cells that cause the release of calcium from bone

low bone density in adults

increasing frequency, intensity, or duration of an exercise bout to improve fitness

Having more weight than is typical for a particular height.

an imbalance between reactive oxidative species (ROS) formed and the number of electrons available to neutralize them causing cell damage

hormone involved in milk release or ejection from the breast (milk letdown)

Carbohydrate-digesting enzyme secreted from the pancreas into the duodenum. It picks up where salivary amylase leaves off.

Lipid digesting enzyme released from the pancreas

Is a process of heating a food or beverage to eliminate pathogens and extend shelf life.

a microorganism that can cause disease

Bacterial or viral agents that cause illness.

condition caused by severe niacin (vitamin B3) deficiency

First active protein-digesting enzyme, found in the stomach. Pepsin begins the chemical breakdown of proteins into smaller units.

Enzymes released from the intestinal villi that chemically digest tri- and di-peptides, splitting them into individual amino acids

bonds linking amino acids together

muscle contractions of the digestive tract, squeezing from top to bottom

Measure of how acidic or basic a substance is. A low pH indicates more acidic, a pH of 7.0 is considered neutral, and a high pH is more basic.

Anatomical description of the throat area containing the epiglottis and opening of the trachea

Form of lipid made up of two fatty acids attached to a hydrophilic head. Often used in cell membranes and emulsifiers

any bodily movement produced by the contraction of skeletal muscle that increases energy expenditure above a basal level

ability to carry out daily tasks with vigor and alertness, without undue fatigue, and with ample energy to enjoy leisure-time pursuits and respond to emergencies

specific use of exercise to promote fitness and strength or improved performance in a specific task

non-nutritive chemical compounds found in the edible parts of plants that provide characteristics to the plant like color, taste, smell. They may also provide health benefits beyond the traditional nutrients

craving for and consumption of non-food items

a substance that has no therapeutic effect

An organ that develops in the uterus during pregnancy that provides oxygen and nutrients to the developing baby and removes waste products from the baby's blood. It attaches to the baby via the umbilical cord.

Protein consisting of four or more (many) amino acids

a fatty acid with 2 or more C=C double bonds in the fatty acid chain

energy intake is greater than energy required

health levels that allow a person to enjoy life and to withstand challenges

Occurs when nitrogen intake via protein consumption is greater than nitrogen excretion. This occurs during times of child growth, pregnancy, and wound healing.

Stage 3 of Alcohol Use Disorder. The drinker seeks out alcohol to combat the negative and stressful withdrawal, leading to additional and continued consumption of alcohol.

dietary practices for reducing disease and promoting health

nutrient deficiency caused by inadequate intake

deficiency of a nutrient caused by inadequate intake

an inactive precursor to an active or functional enzyme

small, continual changes in overload with subsequent adaptation to the imposed stressor resulting in fitness improvements

hormone that initiates growth of the milk duct system in breast tissue and maintains milk production in the alveoli of the breast

Enzymes that chemically digest proteins

A dangerous combination of low protein intake and low calorie intake leading to malnutrition.

The creation of proteins in body cells by combining amino acids is specific sequences.

Body processes of protein breakdown and protein synthesis

any substance that crosses the blood-brain barrier that affects brain function

sphincter between the stomach and the small intestine

Product created at the end of anaerobic glycolysis

type of study where participants are assigned by chance to a particular group that compares different treatments

Organelle of a cell where protein synthesis occurs

Condition of soft, weak, deformed bones in children caused by a deficiency of vitamin D

characteristic that increases the risk of developing a disease

Carbohydrate specific enzyme in saliva that begins to chemically break down amylose and amylopectin into smaller chains of glucose

reduction of muscle mass in the body; often accompanies aging

the sensation of being full

a fatty acid with no double bonds

a system by which a hypothesis is developed based on observation, then the hypothesis is tested and modified based on the outcome of tests and experiments

Condition caused by deficiency of vitamin C

Adequate intake of a nutrient occurs, but for some reason the body cannot use it so deficiency signs and symptoms occur.

nutrient deficiency that occurs when a person consumes an adequate amount of a nutrient, but for some reason the body cannot use what is consumed

hormone released from the duodenum that initiates release of pancreatic juices containing macronutrient-digesting enzymes and bicarbonate for neutralizing hydrochloric acid from the stomach

Lack of physical activity or activities where energy expenditure is no more than 1.5 times the amount of energy expended while at rest. This includes sitting, reclining, or lying down while awake.

muscular contractions of the digestive tract squeezing from the sides

term used to describe the termperature at which an oil stops shimmering and starts smoking. Based on the chemical composition of the oil, smoke points can range from 325-520 degrees Fahrenheit

all dissolved substances in a fluid

sports training that is relevant and appropriate to the sport for which the individual is training. Only those muscles most used during training will adapt to the imposed demands.

muscular rings separating digestive organs that open and close to allow food to move through the digestive tract in a more orderly fashion

stored form of carbohydrate in plants

Form of lipid made up of several ringed structures.

The amount of body fat beyond that which is required for essential body functioning. This fat provides energy for movement and other body processes.

directly beneath the skin; subcutaneous fat is located here

body fat found under the skin

Digestive enzyme secreted from small intestine villi that splits sucrose into glucose and fructose.

things that cannot be easily seen and are usually reported by a patient such as headache, dizziness, pain, or nausea

The energy it takes to digest, absorb, transport, and store nutrients from a meal.

balancing heat gain with heat loss to maintain homeostasis

being "toxic" or poisonous - able to cause damage to the body

poisonous substance produced within living cells or organisms

Tube that carries air from the mouth and nose into the lungs

First step of protein synthesis where the gene recipe for a protein is copied onto messenger RNA (mRNA)

form of breast milk released from 2-4 days after birth until about 2 weeks after birth; includes high levels of fat, lactose, and water soluble vitamins

Second step of protein synthesis where the gene-coded recipe for a protein on the messenger RNA is followed and amino acids are combined in a specific order to make a unique protein. Translation occurs in the ribosome of a cell.

Type of lipid made up of a glycerol backbone attached to three fatty acids; the most common form of lipid in the body and in food

lipoproteins made in the liver that transport fat from liver to the body cells

finger-like projections that line the small intestine

fat located in and around body organs

body fat centrally located around abdominal organs

Stage 2 of Alcohol Use Disorder. In this stage the body experiences withdrawal symptoms when alcohol is not consumed.

Severe drying of the eyes caused by a deficiency of vitamin A

a fertilized egg; first stage of pregnancy